System Software and Network Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

System Software and Network Security - Essay Example The cloud computing has been surrounded by much hype as well as marketing strategies of how the IT infrastructure will eventually be placed in the â€Å"Cloud† if one needs to keep at pace with the technological advances. It’s widely acceptable that there is a wide array of benefits accruing from cloud computing. This includes fast deployment, scalability, business agility, and lower costs (Hurwitz, 2009). Despite these accruing benefits, there is a great danger to a cloud customer. With new providers emerging each day offering the cloud based services, this makes it very difficult for future cloud adopters to undertake due diligence and proper evaluation of the options. Whenever the company decides on the type of cloud (public, private, hybrid) (Furht, 2010) as well as the cloud service(IaaS, PaaS, SaaS) which best suits its specific infrastructure and the business needs, the next major task should be to choose the one specific vendor who is able to provide the above s ervices putting into consideration both cost and performance. At the moment there are no universal standards with which a user can use to evaluate the different cloud service providers which make the entire process quite challenging. Nevertheless there are a few guidelines that a company should put in place before deciding on the best cloud service provider. Most common reasons why companies are being drawn to this type of cloud service is that it offers good choice for companies having complex applications running on the company-owned hardware infrastructure. The companies’ further benefit by avoiding the upfront capital hardware investments since this... The paper tells that most common reasons why companies are being drawn to this type of cloud service is that it offers good choice for companies having complex applications running on the company-owned hardware infrastructure. The companies’ further benefit by avoiding the upfront capital hardware investments since this particular model is based on the pay-per-use model. Before transferring parts or the entire IT infrastructure to the cloud, companies need to state down the specific service requirements the company needs in terms of support, security, monitoring. Required Storage Space: You need to put into consideration the space you require while you are marketing for a cloud storage provider. This helps you calculate the true cost per GB and this will assist in choosing the best provider as well as the best plan that actually fits your business needs at the most affordable price. If the storage space is a limited one, there are a number of free cloud storage services availa ble and can offer anywhere between 1GB to 500GBs. Pricing: this is always another important consideration. Care should be taken when choosing not only the actual price but also the best pricing model. One need to check if the provider offers the pay as you go plans or the fixed price plans. Compatibility: this is also an important factor to consider. You need to establish the number as well as the various types of platforms that the various providers support. This is very important especially if you will be accessing your files using a variety of different devices and platforms.

Societal Impacts on Natural Disasters Essay Example for Free

Societal Impacts on Natural Disasters Essay Natural disasters are a devastating, but undeniably inevitable part of life and society. Because of this fact, many of us tend to believe that they happen as an act of nature, purely out of the human control. We need to start realizing that this is far from the truth and it this attitude that is stopping us from learning from our mistakes. The contemporary world inaccurately labels various disasters as ‘natural’ when in fact, when looked at more closely; there is an enormous correlation between ‘nature’ and ‘society’. There are many flaws in the human preparation for natural disasters that have equated in death and injury where it could have been minimized. Although the occurrence of a disaster can happen at any time, it is vital that we start recognizing that there is much that we can do reduce the effects that they have on us as well as taking ownership to the fact that there have been many changes that we have made to the environment in the past and present to aggravate ‘natural’ disasters and allow them to impact on us with much more severity then they would of otherwise. A natural disaster can be defined as a phenomenon that results in material and/or environmental loss where the affected community would not be able to restore themselves without external support (The Australian Government Department of Transport and Regional Services, 2002). The 2011 TÃ… hoku earthquake and tsunami that affected Japan and the Indian Ocean earthquake affecting Southern Asia are both primary examples of natural disasters. Although these two events were completely unrelated to each-other, the economic and environmental impact that they had on their effected regions were very much similar. These included widespread death and injuries, building and infrastructure losses, major economic downfall and socio-economic loss. The Tohoku earthquake and tsunami struck the coast of Japan at 14:46 local time on 11th of March, 2011. It was a magnitude 9.0 on the Richter scale (Shibahara, 2011), making it one of the most powerful earthquakes the world has ever seen. It lasted a total of 8 minutes and the violent earthquake later triggered a tsunami, which travelled up to 10 kilometres inland into the Sendai area (Norio, 2011). The short-term effects of the earthquake and tsunami included: death and injuries, destruction of property and  infrastructure including roads and all forms of transport systems, financial and economic downfall due to rebuilding, clean-up projects, and the falling of stocks. The event occurred where the pacific plates dip underneath the plate beneath northern Honshu. This is known as convergent boundaries; where one tectonic plate moves under the other, sinking into the Earth’s mantle as the plates meet. Where more traditional earthquakes are caused by friction of two plates moving in opposite directions, in this instant The Pacific Plate moved underneath Honshu’s plate, releasing large amounts of energy (N.A, 2005). The break caused the sea floor to rise by several metres. This underwater megathrust earthquake is the most rare and destructive type, hence producing the massive Richter scale reading. The tsunami that followed the earthquake was triggered by the destructive waves up of to 77 feet and engulfed the coast of Japan minutes after the quake. Some of the more powerful waves travelled up to 6 miles inland, causing damage that almost match that of the earthquake, even though limited to the coastal region. In addition to these events, the disasters also caused major disruption to the nearby nuclear power plants that put Japan in a the midst of a humanitarian crisis unseen in the history of modern Japan (Duan, 2012). Japan often experience’s natural disasters due to their geological placement and hence have developed earthquake and disaster procedures that are one of the most advanced in the world (Sheth Sanyai Jaiswai Gandhi, 2008). However, the series of disasters were simply too high in magnitude for Japan to be prepared for. The earthquake was above what they had predicted and the tsunami had not been factored in. Despite the unprecedented scale of the earthquake alone, many buildings infrastructures remained standing, proving Japan’s construction law’s, resilience and earthquake technology. This shows that if the earthquake was the only disaster that Japan had to deal with, they would have been able to cope with it far more successfully and the tsunami was the reason for the country’s failure (Zare Afrouz, 2012). They were left in a situation where they were facing several difficulties: The application of a response, the management of a large number of residents  that had been displaced by the disaster, and lack of experience in the management of medical resources for displaced populations. In addition to this, the people of Tohoku were only notified of the event one minute before the occurrance, leaving residents in a state of shock and unpreparedness (Norio, 2011). However, despite the devastating elements that the Japanese people were exposed to, they still managed to remain somewhat calm and dealt with the situation at hand with discipline. The public had confidence in officials that were part of relief teams and lined up in a civilized manner for food and drink, as opposed to demonstrating chaotic behavior, which would be very common in similar situations, especially in rural or developing countries. This would be a prime example of successfully educating the public on crisis behavior, especially in regions that are prone to disaster. The 2004 Tsunami, or otherwise known as the 2004 Indiana Ocean tsunami and earthquake is considered as the 6th deadliest earthquake/tsunami and the 2nd most destructive earthquake in the world (Wang Liu, 2008). During the quakes strongest point, it lasted a total of 8-10 minutes and caused a lasting rise in the global sea level of 0.1mm. Its destructive power also resulted in the inactive volcano situated in Indonesia to become active once again. The disaster affected a total of 15 countries, including: Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Somalia, Malaysia, South Africa, Madagascar and Kenya; with Indonesia suffering the most damage. The disaster measured 9.0 on the Richter scale, the same reading as the Tohoku event, this reading was measured in Sumatra, Indonesia and buildings were shaking in Bangkok as well as Singapore which were both more than 600 miles away. Similar to the Tokohu earthquake, the cause of the Indiana Ocean earthquake/ tsunami was also due to the sliding of tectonic plates, in this case the India plate underneath the Burma plate. Even though the process has been on-going for many years, it was the 26th of December 2004 when the process resulted in a rupture more then 1000 kilometers long and shifting the ground above the rupture by approximately 10 meters horizontally and a number of meters vertically. This event caused the entire planet to shake and witness  the largest magnitude earthquake in 40 years. Primary effects of the tsunami include major loss of life: 227000 people confirmed dead and 1.8 million people missing. More than 80000 houses were damaged or had been destroyed as well as overall severe damage to all infrastructure, roads, bridges and all utilities Secondary effects included the spread of disease due to contaminated water and the tropical climate (Wang Liu,2008). Another was major economic downfall due to the loss of coastal fishing industries as well as loss of tourism opportunity due to damage to areas such as Thailand. Emotional and psychological effects on those affected was also a significant factor, as well as the huge number of orphans that were left due to surviving the incident and their parents not being so lucky. The affected countries were entirely unprepared for the disaster (Athukorala, 2012). However, The Pacific Tsunami Monitoring Centre (PTMC) in Honolulu, Hawaii sent a message stating there was a possibility of a tsunami affecting countries in the Indian Ocean 65 minutes prior to the event. Unfortunately, this message was not passed onto the countries in the affected region, as the PTMC officials did not have required contacts in their address book. Furthermore, are a very rare incidence in the Indian Ocean and historically tsunami-related calamities had been of minor importance compared to other natural disasters (Abbott, 2011, Ch. 3; Albala-Bertrand 1993, Ch. 2, From Athukorala, 2012 ). It was also reported that â€Å" in many coastal towns and tourists resorts in Sri Lanka, Aceh, India and Thailand, many people watched the prior receding of the coastline with curiosity or took the opportunity to collect stranded fish and thus easily succumbed to the waves (Athukorala, 2012). † There is now research that shows a close correlation between the magnitude of the damage caused by the tsunami and the regions unpreparedness and lack of coastal resource management. Evidence shows that the shocking death toll could have been significantly bought down if the region had had more effective natural defenses such as coral forests and mangrove swamps, all of which had been destroyed for urban construction such as ocean facing hotels  and villas. By doing so, involved parties have not only broken coastal conservation legislation, but now live with the most serious consequence, loss of life. There is evidence that the amount of human lives lost was partly a result of modern progress, ruthless destruction of natural defenses such as coral forests and mangrove swamps, and building oceanfront hotels and villas in violation of coastal conservation legislation. For instance, in the areas surrounding Aceh, where the coastal ecosystem remained in good condition the tsunami’s effects were far less severe. Also, the island of Simeuleu in Indonesia experienced a relatively death toll, partially due to the healthy condition of the surrounding mangrove forests. Furthermore, in Sri Lanka the damage was much more brutal as there had been violation of regulation prohibiting mining coral reefs and damaging coastal mangrove forests, which act as a shield against the destruction of the sea (Athukorala, 2012). Both these events should act as a alarm for leaders all over the world, to revise their methods and procedure for disaster detection and response procedures. It could be an alarm for us to be more thorough and cautious about the earthquake hazard as the prepared and industrialized Japan with the most modernized technology confronted many extensive troubles, which were out of their predictions. We need to analyse the two events and see the connection between ‘nature’ and ‘society’ and understand that the two are interlinked. Although the occurrence of a natural disaster is out of our control, we are able to make a difference in the brutality of its effects by the choices we make to our surrounding environment, as proven by the regions that were fortunate to shield themselves from the wrath of the tsunami with their mangrove swamps and natural defense systems. Although the economic state of any region is a important factor in a range of decisions, officials need to also consider the environment as a major factor in their decision making when it comes to urban development; as without it, we have nothing.

Lung Cancer: History, Causes, Types and Treatments

Lung Cancer: History, Causes, Types and Treatments Lung Cancer Introduction Lung cancer is a kind of cancer that begins in the lungs. Lungs are the spongy organs in the chest that are responsible for taking in oxygen when one inhales and releases carbon-dioxide when one exhales. Lung cancer is the principal causation of cancer related deaths in the United States, amongst both women n and men. It claims more lives annually than does breasts, ovarian, prostate and colon cancers, all combined. People that smoke have the highest chances of suffering this ailment. The risk of this form of cancer increases with the number of cigarettes one smokes and the duration that one smokes. Lung cancer causes the demise of more than one million people worldwide in a single year. It is projected that roughly 90% of deaths caused by lung cancer in men and 75-80% overall deaths in the United States are owed to smoking. Vividly, lung cancer is a prevalent and imperative disease that constitutes a major health problem in the world. History In the past 150 years, lung cancer was non-existent. In the year 1878, only 1% represented the malignant lung cancers that were seen by the pathology institute of university of Dresden, Germany. By the year 1918, the percentage of cancer had risen to about 10% and by the year 1927 it had risen to more than 14%. It was noted in 1930 that t the turn of the new century the malignant tumors had begun to increase and may be even more by the end of World War I. It was noted that whilst most of the lung tumors happened to men, there seemed to be a rise of the tumors in women as well. The period of the disease from the time it was known to the time of death was usually between a year and two years at most. In all these cases of the patients diagnosed with the lung tumors, there had been a prolonged history of chronic bronchitis. The increase of lung cancer was said to have been on the rise due to several probable etiological factors: increase in air pollution by dust and gasses that were emitted by the industries; being exposed to gases in World War I; increased automobile traffic; and working with gasoline or benzene. Nevertheless, lung cancer cases rose at an equally alarming rate in the countries that had few automobiles, less industries and workers not exposed to gasoline and benzene. In several instances, smoking was mentioned as a possibility that caused lung cancer, but many investigations failed to confirm a link between lung cancer and smoking. There were however suspicions that smoking did actually contribute to the illness. However, in the year 1929, Fritz Linckint, a German physician, researched and published the findings that the lung cancer patients were most likely to be smokers. This led to his campaigns against smoking which led to the spread of anti-tobacco activism in Germany. The link amid lung cancer and smoking of cigarettes began to be prominent in the 1930s due to the suspicions of clinicians owed to the increase in the disease. After two decades, smoking was declared an agent that caused lung cancer. In the 1940s in Germany, lung cancer was the second frequent cause of cancer death after stomach cancer. Research by The German Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research postulated that amongst 109 lung cancer patients, only three were not smokers. It however took a very long time for the truth to sink in that there was a causative link between lung cancer and smoking. Most of the smokers as well as the physicians, who enjoyed cigarettes refused to trust that their habit was harmful to their health. In the 1500s two regions in Czechoslovakia and Germany, Joachimsthal and Schneeberg were productive mines that yielded arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, nickel and silver. The miners in these ores developed some deadly disease that the locals termed at â€Å"the mountain disease† that was labeled an occupational disease for the miners. Most thought that arsenic was the root cause of this lung cancer but it was later proven that it was the emissions of radium that was the cause. Lung Cancer Risks and Causes To a large extent, the biggest cause of lung cancer is smoking. Smoking causes over 8 out of ten lung cancer cases including a tiny fraction caused due to being exposed to second hand smoke for the non-smokers (passive smoking). The more an individual smokes, the higher the chances of getting lung cancer though the length of time that one stays a smoker is even more crucial than the number of cigarettes one takes a day. It is more harmful to start smoking at a a young tender age than starting as an adult. When one stops smoking it reduces the risks they have of contacting lung cancer as compared to continuing to smoke. The sooner one quits, the better their health. Passive smoking, breathing in other persons’ smoke from cigarettes, increases the possibility of lung cancer though it is much less if one smokes themselves. Cigarette smoking is therefore the major basis of lung cancer. Cigar and pipe smokers also have an increased chance of getting lung cancer as compared to those who do not smoke. They are also very likely to get cancer of the lip or mouth. In the past lung cancer was common with men than women, but nowadays since more women are smoking, it is also as common amongst women. Other risk factors that are known to cause lung cancer include: the exposure to radon gases and certain chemicals, air pollution, a previous lung disease, a family history of lung cancer, lowered immunity, previously smoking related cancers, and a past treatment of cancer. Radon gas is a natural radioactive gas that originates from the tiny deposits of uranium found in all soils and rocks. Radon gas is the second biggest cause of lung cancer after smoking. Exposure to radon gas increases the risk of getting lung cancer for the smokers. It is therefore advisable for the people living in areas prone to this gas to stop smoking since their chances of getting lung cancer are very high. Certain chemicals have been known to cause lung cancer: diesel exhaust, silica and asbestos. Contact with Asbestos was common in the 1960s in the shipbuilding and construction industries. Asbestos is still a lung cancer cause since the cancers take a pretty long time to develop. Smokers are at a higher risk of contacting lung cancer when exposed to asbestos. Silica is also a chemical that is used in glass making and is harmful to the human body since it causes a condition called silicosis. A person suffering from this illness has a very high chance of getting lung cancer, and once again, smokers are more at risk as compared to non-smokers. Air pollution has also been known to cause lung cancer. It however depends on the level of air pollution one exposes themselves to. People who have had previous diseases in the lungs have an increased rate of getting lung cancer. Adenocarcinoma of the lung is a form of lung cancer that occurs after one has had a disease in the past that caused a scar in the lungs. Tuberculosis is one such disease that can leave a scar in the lung. People who have suffered from tuberculosis have a double risk of getting lung cancer. The risk continues for over 20 years of the disease. Chlamydia pneumoniae is a kind of a bacterium known to cause chest infections. The people with the antibodies to Chlamydia pneumonia have an increased chance of getting lung cancer. The risk is even greater for the smokers. Family history of lung cancer could also be another risk factor to lung cancer. If a person has a first degree relative with the disease, their risk of lung cancer will be increased by 50%. This risk is however higher if a sister or brother has lung cancer, than the parent. This risk is not dependent on whether an individual smokes or not. Families with smokers could be exposed to smoke from cigarettes and therefore increase the chances of contacting lung cancer whether they have inherited a defective gene or not. Research has it that there is a likelihood that at least a single faulty gene could increase the risk of lung cancer and can be passed down in the family, inherited. There is evidence that particular treatments of cancer could increase the risks of lung cancer. An assessment into the cure for breast cancer shows that the ways of administering radiotherapy have in the past increased the risk of developing lung cancer. Oestrogen receptor negative patients suffering from breast cancer have a high risk of getting lung cancer. Other people who may also have increased chances of getting lung cancer are those that have been treated for a type of cancer of the womb, testicular cancer, and Hodgkin lymphoma. Just like in the past causes of cancer discussed above, the chances of getting lung cancer are more increased for the smokers. Persons who have had neck, head cancer, cervical cancer and oesophagal cancer have a high risk of lung cancer. This could be explained by the reason that all the mentioned cancers are common for smokers, though it could also be due to radiotherapy curative procedures. The drugs that people take after they have had organ transplants and the people with HIV/AIDS both have low immunity. People with HIV or AIDS therefore have a risk of lung cancer that is 3 times more than those that do not have the disease. People who use drugs that suppress immunity after they have had an organ transplant have a double the normal risk of lung cancer. People with autoimmune conditions such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis also have an increased chance of getting lung cancer. Signs and Symptoms of Lung Cancer Lung cancer may not produce any conspicuous symptoms during the early stages. In about 40% of persons diagnosed with lung cancer, diagnosis is normally made after the disease has already advanced. In most of the patients, the cancer advances to stage three for it to be detected. There are however some lung cancer symptoms that one ought to watch out for and seek medical attention early in advance. A new cough that lingers is one sign of lung cancer; since a cough related to a respiratory infection or cold should disappear within one to two weeks. One should not label a lingering cough as â€Å"just a cough† whether it is mucus producing or dry. It is therefore advisable to see a doctor immediately for testing. Changes in the cough is also trivial to note more so for the smokers. These changes include the cough having a hoarse and deeper sound, coughing up more mucus than normal or blood and coughing more often than is usual. Becoming easily breathless or experiencing shortness of breath are some probable indicators of lung cancer. This symptom could probably occur when the lung cancer narrows or blocks the airway, or when fluid from the lung tumor accumulates in the chest. This symptom should not be ignored for tiredness or dismissed for whatever reason. The presence of lung cancer can produce pain the back, shoulder and chest areas. The aching feeling could however not be accompanied by coughing. The chest pain caused by lung cancer is owed to a discomfort that is as a result of metastasis or the enlargement of lymph nodes to the ribs, pleura (lining in the lung region) or the chest wall. Wheezing is another symptom of lung cancer. The whistling or wheezing sound is produced by the lungs when one breaths, since the airways become inflamed, blocked and constricted by the occurrence of the tumor. Since wheezing is associated with treatable and benign causes, one should have it checked and not assume it since it could be a probable cause of lung cancer. The voice changes when one has lung cancer and becomes raspier, hoarse and deeper. Hoarseness in normal circumstances could be as a result of a simple cold, but when it persists to more than two weeks; it ought to be checked out. The hoarseness that is related to lung cancer occurs when a tumor tampers with the nerves that are responsible for controlling the voice box or larynx. A weight loss that cannot be explained of approximately 10 pounds or more may be linked to lung cancer or a different type of lung cancer. When there is a cancer in the body, ones weight drops as a result of the cancer cells using the energy in the body. It also tampers with the normal way in which the body uses energy acquired from food. Lung cancer could spread to the bones producing pain in the body and more so in the back. The pain is worse at night when the patient rests on their back. Lung cancer is also linked to pain in the neck, arm and shoulder. Headaches could be a sign that the lung cancer has spread to the brain. The headaches could also be triggered by pressure by the lung tumor on the superior vena cava (the large vein responsible for moving blood to the heart from the upper body). Prevention of Lung Cancer Several factors may help in the protection of lung cancer: diet, physical activity, aspirin and having multiple sclerosis. Vegetables and fresh fruits may help in the prevention of lung cancer since they contain chemicals that can prevent damage to cells. The antioxidant vitamins E, C and A, are also thought to help in the reduction of lung cancer. New evidence postulates that flavonoids in many vegetables and fruits help reduce the risk of lung cancer. Research is however ongoing to find out which exact nutrients in vegetables and fruits are of utmost help. Beta cryptoxanthin, found in fruits like mangoes and oranges may lower risk of lung cancer. Changing diet alone cannot reduce the risk of lung cancer much when one carries on smoking. The most vital thing is to quit smoking. Studies have shown that high levels of physical activity can lower the risk of lung cancer. This includes the activities at home, work and leisure activities such as golf and walking. Some research has it that taking aspirin may reduce the risk of lung cancer but other studies have not. Other studies postulate that aspirin intake may only reduce the risk in men or for people taking 7 tablets within a week. It is however not advisable to take aspirin on regular basis without the doctor’s instructions since it may cause bleeding or damage the stomach lining. People with multiple sclerosis, according to some research, have a low lung cancer risk. Types of Lung Cancer There are two main lung cancer types: Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer. The staging of lung cancer depends on whether the cancer has spread from lungs to lymph nodes or other organs, or whether the cancer is local. Since the lungs are very large, tumors can grow for a long duration before they are found. Symptoms such as fatigue and coughing may occur but people will always dismiss them thinking they are caused by other causes. Due to this reason, the early stages of lung cancer (stages I and II) are difficult to detect. Most people suffering from cancer are diagnosed at stages III and IV. Treatment Options for Lung Cancer There are four varied ways on how to treat lung cancer: targeted therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery. The options for treatment and recommendations highly depend on a number of factors such as the patient’s overall health and preferences, the possible side effects and the stage and type of lung cancer. The care plan also includes treatment for the symptoms and the side effects. Surgery A thoracic surgeon is mainly trained to perform lung cancer surgery. The aim of surgery in cancer treatment is to completely remove the lung tumor and the close by lymph nodes in the chest area. The tumor should be removed with a surrounding margin or border of normal lung tissue. Several types of surgery may possibly be used for lung cancer: Pneumonectomy, segmentectomy, a wedge, lobectomy, radiofrequency ablation and adjuvant therapy. Adjuvant therapy is the cure given after surgery to lessen the lung cancer risk returning. It involves chemotherapy, targeted therapy and radiation therapy. The intention behind adjuvant therapy is to rid the body of any cancer cells that may still be in the body after the surgery. Radiation therapy This is the application of high energy x-rays and other particles to destroy cells of cancer. A radiation oncologist gives radiation therapy to cancer patients. External-beam radiation therapy is the most regularly used form of radiation therapy used that is given by use of a machine that is outside the body. Brachytherapy, radiation treatment using implants, in not used for lung cancer. Lung cancer patients who undergo radiation therapy experience loss of appetite and fatigue. If therapy is administered in the center of the chest or neck, patients may have difficulty swallowing or experience a sore throat. Chemotherapy This is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells through stopping the cancer cells growth and division. Chemotherapy has been proven to improve the quality and length of life for the lung cancer patients in all stages. Common ways of administering chemotherapy is through placing an intravenous (IV) tube that is placed in the vein by use of needle or a capsule or pill administered orally. Chemotherapy side effects depend on the dose used and individual. They include hair loss, diarrhea, appetite loss, vomiting, nausea, fatigue and risk of infection. The side effects normally go away when the treatment is finished. Targeted therapy This form of treatment blocks the spread and growth of cancer cells whilst limiting harm to healthy cells. For lung cancer, the types of targeted therapy administered include anti-angiogenesis therapy. Conclusion It is not always possible to recover fully from cancer. When the treatment does not succeed, the disease is called terminal or advanced cancer. Diagnosis is very stressful for many patients to discuss. It is however crucial to have an honest and open discussion with the healthcare team or doctor to express concerns, preferences and feelings. Patients with advanced cancer and expected to live for less than six months should consider palliative care known as hospice. Hospice care is intended to provide the possible best quality life for people near the end of life. Arius and Athanasius | Analysis Arius and Athanasius | Analysis SYPNOSIS Arius and Athanasius were archrivals of the Arian controversy. Arius was the leading father in Arianism whilst Athanasius was the defender of the Nicene Theology for orthodox Christianity against Arianism. As Arianism rejects the divinity of Christ, salvation to mankind was at stake. Athanasius advocates the consubstantiality of the three persons of the trinity which was crucial argument to defend the divinity of Christ. Consequently Athanasius had built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine which together with the humanity of Christ represents the complete Trinitarian theology. I. INTRODUCTION The fourth century church experienced a major crisis in understanding Gods divine nature, characteristics and relationship with members of the Godhead. This Arian controversy centred upon two archrival theologians, Arius and Athanasius.1 The controversy represented a new phase of doctrinal development of the Godhead and led to the Council of Nicaea in 325 and the Churchs first ecumenical statement of the Trinity. 2 Athanasius was the champion of Nicene Theology, who greatly defended the traditional Christianity against the Arian heresy.3 Section II of this essay will briefly discuss the background of Arius, and summarize his basic theology. Section III will provide an overview about Athanasiuss life, Athanasius theology in conjunction with his defence against the Arians heretic claims. Finally, the conclusion will be drawn in Section IV. II. THE ARIAN CONTROVERSY The ‘Arian controversy ignited in 318, when Arius openly taught his heretic teachings that denied the full divinity of the Son. Consequently, Arius challenged his bishop (Alexander of Alexandria) and teachers of Alexandria to an Christological conflict.4 The controversy lasted for nearly half a century and became the confrontation between the two archrivals, the ‘Nicene party and Origenists.5 Athanasius coined the names ‘Arian and ‘Arians as pejorative political and theological slurs against Arius and his opponents, who disagreed with him on the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, and those meant the Son as a creature or held fast to Arius basic position. Cf. Thomas G. Weinandy, Athanasius: a Theological Introduction (Hampshire, England: Ashgate Publishing, 2007), 51-52. Donald K. McKim, Theological Turning Points: Major Issues in Christian Thought (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1988), 14. Justo L. Gonzà ¡lez, The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of The Reformation (3 vols., New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1984, Vol. 1), 173. Johannes Quasten, Pathology: The Golden Age of Greek Patristic Literature. From the Council of Nicaea to the council of Chalcedon (Utrecht, Netherlands: Spectrum Publishers, 1963, Vol. III), 66. Bruce L. Shelly, Church History in Plain Language (2nd Ed., Dallas, Texas: Word Publishing, 1995), 100. Everett Ferguson (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Early Christianity (New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1990), 8485, 92. The controversy roots lay deep in â€Å"the differences of the ante-Nicene doctrine of the Logos, especially in the two contradictory half truths of Origens Christology, which was claimed by both archrivals ― the full divinity of Christ and his eternal distinctness from the Father.6 Conclusively, the Arians were the catalysts, rather than the main participants.7 II.1. ARIUS AND HIS DOCTRINE Trained in the Lucian School, Arius was called one of the heretical fathers of Arianism.8 Arianism was a heretical doctrine of theological rationalism, based on the teachings of Lucian of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, and Neoplatonic theory of subordinationism.9 Arius wrote very little and only a few fragments survived. Thalia was his only own writing which Athanasius recited.10 Most information about Arius life and his doctrine came from Athanasius writings.11 Influenced by Origen, Arius rejected the term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) and insisted the concrete and distinct three persons (Ï€ÏÆ'Ï„Î ±ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹Ãâ€š) of the Godhead, a separate essence and the subordination of the Son to Father.12 Nicene split the church into two major groups: 1) The ‘Nicene party― consisted of the West, the school of Antioch and other in the East like Athanasius. They affirmed the full deity of Jesus Christ, but were less clear on the eternal threeness of the Godhead. They did not deny the distinction between Father, Son and Holy Spirit (i.e. they were not Monarchians), but they did not state it as forcefully as the Origenists wanted and so appeared to them to be Monarchian. (2) The Origenists ― were strong on the threeness of the Godhead, but less clear on the deity of Jesus Christ. They were not Arians (i.e. they did not see Jesus Christ as a creature made out of nothing), but they held him to be inferior t o the Father and so appeared Arian to the Nicene party. Cf. Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought (Rev. ed., London: TT Clark, 2006), 30. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology (3rd ed.; Toronto, New York London: Funk Wagnalls Company, 1894, Vol. 1) 134137. Cf. http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010). Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, 30-31. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 134-137. Cf. http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7. Ephiphanius, Panarion 69,4. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,4. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 15. Note: Scholars still debate over the ideological forerunner of Arius doctrine, whether it was derived from the theories of Origen, or of Paul of Samosata, or of Lucian of Antioch. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 6-8. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, I.5,6; Athanasius, De Synodis, 15. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381 (Edinburgh: T T Clark Ltd., 1988), 11. And a few sources from the church historians of the fourth and fifth centuries, and from the letters of St. Basil and of Epiphanius of Salamis. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10-13. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 134-137. John Behr, The Way to Nicaea: The Formation of Christian Theology (3 vols.; Crestwood, New York: St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 2001, Vol. 1), 200-201. Arius denied all internal divine relations existing between the Father and the Son ― the eternal deity of Christ and his equality with the Father (ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ±).13 II.2. A SUMMARY OF ARIUS THEOLOGY Arius basic doctrine:14 (1) Godhead is uncreated, unbegotten (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š), without beginning;15 (2) The Son of God cannot be truly God. The Son is the first of Gods creatures, a secondary God, â€Å"god by participation.† Like the other creations, â€Å"the Son is not unbegotten (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š),† â€Å"he is one of the things fashioned and made,† 16 brought out ex nihilo (ÃŽ ¾ ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ º ÃŽ ½Ãâ€žÃâ€°ÃŽ ½). â€Å"There was a time when the Son of God was not (ÃŽ ½ Ï„Î µ ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ º ÃŽ ½).†17 â€Å"Neither does the Son indeed know his own substance as it is,† â€Å"he was created for our sake, rather than we for his.† â€Å"He is the Son of God not in the metaphysical, but in the moral sense of the word.†18 By the will of God, the Son has his statute and character (á ¼ ¥ÃŽ »ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ºÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š ÃŽ ºÃŽ ±Ã¡ ¼ ° ÏÆ'ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š).† â€Å"The Son is by his nature; changeable, mutable, equally with other rational beings.† The Father is ineffable to the Son; for neither does the Word (Logos) perfectly and accurately know the Father, neither can he perfectly see Him (the Father).†19 (3) â€Å"The title of God is improper for the Son of God, since the only true God adopted him as Son in prevision of his merits.† This sonship by adoption insists â€Å"no real participation in the divinity and no true likeness to it;† Thus, the absolute and eternal divinity of Christ 13 Epiphanius, Panarion 69.6.1ff. Theodoret of Cyrus, Haereticarum fabularum compendium (History of Heresies) I.5. Cf. Philip Schaff, ‘Arius in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology,139. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7-8. 14 Epiphanius, Panarion 69,6. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,5,1-4. Athanasius, De Synodis 15. Socrates, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,6. Gelasius of Cyzicus, Historia conc. Nic. 2,3. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8, 14, 15-16.Cf. Athanasius, Epistula encyclical ad episcopos Aegypti et Libyae, 12. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters (Philip Schaff ed.; Grand Rapids, Mi: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1892), 229. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_229.html (25 April 2011). 15 Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1.4.1. See also the conclusion in Arius first Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10. 16 Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16. 17 See the Arius conclusion in his first Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Athanius, De Synodis, II.26. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 8. 18 Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 12. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. 19 Italic words are mine. Athanasius, De Synodis 15. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 7. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 15. 3 is to be denied.20 (4) The Logos is created by God as the instrument of creation. The Logos holds a middle place between God and the world is made flesh by the will of the Father and fulfilled in Jesus Christ the function of a soul, â€Å"though divine, was less than fully divine.† 21 (5) The Holy Spirit is the first creature of the Logos, and is still less God than the Word. III. ATHANASIUS AND HIS THEOLOGY Though Athanasius was not a systematic theologian, his greatest dedication in life was the fierce defence of orthodox Christianity against the Arian heresy. 22 He was so identified with the cause that the successive history of the Arian controversy is best told by following Athanasius life.†23 The three discourses of Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, were his main dogmatic writings targeted against Arianism.24 The first discourse contained the definition of the Nicene Council ― there is a unity of divine essence between the Father and the Son, and the Son is eternal, increated (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š) and unchangeable.25 III.1. ATHANASIUS Athanasius, De Synodis, 15. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Cf. the following citation: â€Å"The leaders in the Arian movement (Arius himself, Eusebius of Nicomedia, Maris and Theognis) received their training under Lucian and always venerated him as their master and the founder of their system. Later critics of Lucian, including Alexander of Alexandria, during the Council of Nicaea in 325, associated his school with Ariuss rejection of the absolute divinity of Christ. No one before Lucian of Antioch and Arius had taught that the Logos is categorically different from God.† of ‘Lucian of Antioch in New Word Encyclopedia. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Lucian_of_Antioch (10 April 2011). Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 100-101. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67-68. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. Justo L. Gonzà ¡lez, The Story of Christianity, 166. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26. The systematic and reliable ancient account of Athanasius could be found in the framework, such as Historia acephala and Festal Index.26 Ordained as deacon to his bishop Alexander in Alexandria, Athanasius accompanied Alexander to the Council at Nicaea (325). Later he succeeded Alexander and became the bishop of Alexandria (328-373).27 Athanasius, as a leading Christian writer of NeoAlexandrine School, adopted the historic-grammatical interpretation of Scripture (which the School of Antioch advocated) in all polemical and theological controversy with the Arians.28 The Arians enlisted the support of secular power and corrupt church authority to silence and destroy Athanasius. When Athanasius refused Constantines order to readmit Arius to communion, his opponents launched all kind of allegations, causing calumnies further to increase.29 For instance, under the influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia, the bishops of the Tyrian Synod condemned Athanasius with charges which he could not escape. They exiled Athanasius to Trier and restored Arius to church communion and reinstate him into the rank of the clergy.30 The history about Athanasius life is also found in his own writings and the Syriac introduction to his Festal Letters, also in Historia acephala or called Historia Athanasii, Gregory Nazianzens Oration 21, and some fragments of a Coptic eulogy. Cf. Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (2nd Printing 1994; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 5. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘Athanasius in Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Mainentry=t100.e116 (18 March 2011). Cf. David Hugh Farmer, ‘Athanasius in The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2003). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20. Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 1. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20-21. Athanasius was firstly charged with murder (sorcery and murder of Arsenius, a Meletian bishop in the Thebaid). His second charge was a political kind (he had threatened to stop the Alexandrian corn-ships).His third charge was his order to assault the presbyter Ischyras. Cf. ‘St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/athanasius (18 March 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 9. Archibald Robertson, Select Writings and Letters of Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria: Edited, with Prolegomena, Indices, and Titles (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Cushing-Malloy Inc., 1978), lxxxvi. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part1, 165-166. For the letter, see H.I. Bell, Jesus and Christians in Egypt (London: 1924), 53-71. Because of Arian controversy, Athanasius spent seventeen of his forty-five years as bishop in five different exiles.31 This situation happened, probably â€Å"because his Defence against the Arians gave so full an account.†32 Athanasius was likened to â€Å"a modern gangster,† â€Å"an unscrupulous politician,†33 because of â€Å"his oppressive and violent authoritative nature.†34 However he had never been formally charged with heresy,35 and some mentioned that he was the pillar of the church;†36 And the Roman Church hailed him among the four great Fathers of the East.37 III.2. ATHANASIUS THEOLOGY Alexander and his successor Athanasius laid emphasis on Origens insistence on the Sons eternal divinity related to the existence of God as Father rather than creator, which had led to the Nicene doctrine of the identity of substance (ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ±). Athanasius prioritized faith over reason, contrary to Arians rationalistic tendency.38 Athanasius theological approach was centred on Soteriology.39 He was committed to monotheism.40 But Arius account of God was incoherent since on one interpretation it was similar to the radical Judaic monotheism, and the other interpretation of it (one that emphasized â€Å"the Son is god in some secondary sense†) was equivalent to a kind of polytheism ― two gods, namely one God who is ingenerate and 31 Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, . Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/atha nasius (18 March, 2011). See also, Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 20. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 239-273, 422. Cf. David M. Gwynn, The Eusebians: The Polemic of Athanasius of Alexandria and the Construction of the Arian Controversy (Oxford Theological Monographs; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 2. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 6. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part 1, 167. Cf. Adolf Harnack, History of Dogma, (6 vols; trans. Neil Buchanan; New York: Dover Publications,1961, Vol. 4), 62. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma4.ii.ii.i.i.iii.html (25 April 2011). Gregory of Nazianzus, The Orations 21, 26. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. The four great Fathers of the Eastern Church ― John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Athanasius of Alexandria ― were recognized in 1568 by Pope St. Pius V. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘Church Fathers in Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church (6 April 2011). Athanasius, In Illud ‘Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 423. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 425. one who is generated. This resulted in two incongruous accusations against the Arians that they were no better than Jews and that they were identical with pagans. 41 Unlike the Arians, who needed the Son as a lower god to reconcile an incomparable and impassable God with the Scriptural message that God suffered for humankinds salvation, Athanasius dealt with the self-revelation of God who had come into the closest contact with His creation (Jn 14:9).42 Athanasius endeavoured to substantiate â€Å"the very tradition, teaching, and faith of the Catholic Church from the beginning, which the Lord gave, the Apostles preached, and the Fathers kept.† Athanasius maintained, â€Å"I have delivered the tradition, without inventing anything extraneous to it.† The tradition was that the one God is a Triad.43 Trinity At the heart of Athanasiuss theology of Incarnation lay his doctrine of Trinity,44 summed up as follows: There is a Trinity, holy and complete, consistent, eternal and indivisible in nature, not composed of one that creates and one that originated, but all creative, called to be God in Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Father does all things â€Å"through the Word (the Son) in the Holy Spirit†. Their activity is one, and their unity is preserved. The Trinity is Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.67, I.17, 18, III.16. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 426. Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 28-33. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. Brian LePort, An Introduction to the Letters of Serapion on the Holy Spirit by Athanasius of Alexandria, 18. http://westernseminary.academia.edu/BrianLePort/Papers/172851/An_Introduction_to_the_Letters_of_Serapi on_on_the_Holy_Spirit_by_Athanasius_of_Alexandria. (21 April 2011). Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.15; Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 402. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_402.html (20 April 2011). R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425. â€Å"not only in name and form of speech but in truth and actuality.† Thus one God, â€Å"who is overall (Eph. 4:6), and through all and in all.†45 Athanasius constantly defended the ontological unity of the Father and the Son through his Scriptural argument. He proved the divinity of Christ and of Holy Spirit,46 because â€Å"if we participate in Christ, we must then participate in God, if our redemption is to be assured.† 47 Athanasius refuted Arius claims that the Son was a creature and had come into being from ‘non-existence, and that â€Å"there was a time when He was not.† Athanasius argued that there can be only one Son ― the eternal Word and Wisdom of the substance of God the Father, and that the Word is always coexistent with the Father, who is the creator and Lord of all, to whom all things owed their existence.48 Athanasius rejected the Arian position that the very name ‘Son presumes His being generated, and that the Son (th e Word) is a work of the will of God for the creation of the world. Athanasius argued that to be begotten implies to be â€Å"an offspring of the Fathers essence, not of His will,† since â€Å"begetting in God differs from human begetting† because of Gods indivisibility. Because the Son is in the Father and proper to Him, as the radiance in the light and stream from fountain, Athanasius asserted that the Sons eternal relation to the Father is essential Italic words are mine. Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 2, 12, 14, 16, 19-20, 25, 27, 31; III, 15. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24, 25. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66-67. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 427. Athanasius, De incarnation et contra Arianos, 13-19. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 422. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 29. Kurt Aland, A History of Christianity: From the Beginnings to the Threshold of the Reformation (Trans. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980, Vol. 1), 191. Athanasius, Vita antonii, 69. Athanasius, Depositio Arii, 2, 3. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 11. Athanasius, â€Å"On Luke X.22 (Matt. XI.27)† in In Illud ‘Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 4. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, III.4; Cf. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 214. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_214.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 70. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_70.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 89. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_89.html (18 April 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. and not merely moral as Arius viewed.49 Also, Athanasius refuted the Docetic views of the Arians and Apollonarians on the relationship of the historical Christ to the eternal Son. 50 Arius maintained, based on Proverbs 8:22ff, that the Sons mediatory ontological status between God and creation was necessary, because â€Å"the Father was too high and mighty, or too proud to carry out the work of creation himself,† and â€Å"therefore begot the Son† as â€Å"the minister of the intentions of the Father.†51 However, Athanasius argued that the terms applied to the Incarnate and not the pre-existent Christ; Thus, Athanasius implied that the mediating activity of the Son is not in his position within the Godhead, but in his becoming Incarnate. So, Athanasius placed the Son (Logos) on the side of God, opposite Arius placement of the Son on the side of the creatures.52 Athanasius insisted that â€Å"the Son has in common with the Father the fullness of the Fathers Godhead† and â€Å"the Son is entirely God.†53 Against Arius subordination of the Son, Athanasius argued that if the Son says, â€Å"The Father is greater than I,† He means that, â€Å"The Father is the origin, the Son the derivation.†54 â€Å"Eternally begotten, the Son is the Fathers substance, He is consubstantial to the Father, He is ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š.†55 Athanasius also rejected the term ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š as unacceptable. So, Athanasius defended the term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š against the Arians and Semi-Arians.56 Consequently, Athanasius disapproved what the Arians claim ― a ‘proceeding origin for the Father and the Son.57 Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. J ohannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67-68. Athanasius, Epistula ad Epictetum episcopum Corinthi, 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 59. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24-25. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 101. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, II.25; I.16; III.3, 6; II.41; III.3,4. Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318381, 424. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos I.16; III.6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 68. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos III, 3; Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69-70. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 434. Logos and Redemption Athanasius theology of the Logos centred upon the concept of redemption.58 For Athanasius, the redeeming will of God necessitated the incarnation of Christ and his death. If God Himself had not become man, and if Christ were not God, there would not have been redemption for mankind.59 This can only required that Christ was God by nature, not by participation, because the latter could never have formed the likeness of God in anyone. Thus, Athanasius refuted the Arian concept of the Son as god by participation.60 Christology Athanasius theology upheld the real distinction between the divinity and humanity after the Incarnation, yet emphasized the personal unity of Christ. Consequently, whatever the Lord did as God and as human being belongs to the same person.61 Athanasius refuted the Arian charge of creature-worship directed against the Nicene Christology with the argument, that Catholics do not worship the humanity of Christ, but the Lord of creation, the Word Incarnate.62 Holy Spirit By maintaining that the Spirit â€Å"is no creature, but is one with the Son as the Son is one with the Father, [the Spirit] is glorified with the Father and the Son, and confessed as God with the Word,† Athanasius rejected the idea of the Holy Spirit being one of the Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 9, 54. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 70-71. Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 8. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71. Athanasius, De Synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71-72. Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology,72. Athanasius, Epistula ad Adelphium et confessorem, 3. Athanasius, â€Å"Letter LX. ― To Adelphius, Bishop and Confessor: against the Arians† in NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 575. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_575.html (20 April 2011). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, ministering spiritual creatures, and insisted the Godhead of the Holy Spirit according t o the Nicene Creed.63 Athanasius defended the non-scriptural Nicene term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) and ÃŽ º Ï„Ï‚ ÃŽ ¿ÃÆ'ÃŽ ±Ãâ€š (of the essence). He claimed that these terms were to be found in the Scripture, and they had already been used by the Church Fathers, including Tertullian, Origen, Dionysius of Rome, Dionysius of Alexandria and Theognostus.64 Against the claims of the heretic Arians and Tropicists, Athanasius gave the reasons for adopting the word ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) for both the Son and the Spirit in relation to the Father, and proved that the Nicaeas Trinitarian formula was in accordance with Scripture.65 Athanasius accused the Arians of teaching that God was not always a Trinity since the Son has not always existed, and also of dividing the Trinity because they attributed different natures to the Father and the Son.66 Arianism attacks the very nature of Christianity because it denotes â€Å"a God who was not a true God at all†, who was â€Å"in no position to communicate salvation† to humans, and therefore â€Å"incapable for redeeming mankind†.67 The Arian doctrine, which formed a canon Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 1, 15-21, 27, 31; III.1. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos II, 25, 26, 73, 74. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67. For a discussion of Athanasiuss use of homoousious of the Spirit, see Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God: the Holy Spirit as the Universal Touch and Goal (Collegeville, Minnesota, USA: Liturgical Press, 2003), 18, 74, 126. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 18. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 163. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_163.html (20 April 2011). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 61. Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi (Letter Concerning the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea) was written about 350/351 and addressed by Athanasius to one of his friends, to whom the Arian claim had caused confusion. Whereas and Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum (the four letters concerning the Holy Spirit) was written by Athanasius around 359/360 and addressed to Serapion to refute the heretic tropicists, who opposed the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 57, 61. Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God: the Holy Spirit as the Universal Touch and Goal, 18. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424. Athanasius, De synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 7. of scriptural misinterpretation, was a slander against the Fathers. 68 The worship which the Arians offered to God was a blasphemous idolatry. 69 Athanasius defended the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, successfully explained the nature and generation of the Logos, built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine of the Church, and thus established the theological foundation for centuries to come.70 Athanasius Christological weakness In his Christology, Athanasius did not assign any important role to the human soul of Christ. In fact, When the Arians objected the divinity of Christ by referring to the Scriptural passages which mention the inner suffering, fear and affliction of the Logos, Athanasius never made use the opportunity and never attacked the Arians in this error, because it dealt with the human soul of Christ. 71 Christs death is to Athanasius is a separation of Logos and body.72 Athanasius theology was based on Logos-Sarx theology. In relation to Orationes contra Arianos (III.35-37) its weakness was revealed when Athanasius could not comment to the Arians in: (1) the connecting link between the Logos and his flesh; (2) the existence of a human soul in Christ.73 Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 1. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos I.8, II.43, III.16. Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 13. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Ari What are the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity? What are the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity? Thesis: the greatest impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible invasion of escapees, the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population. LINK TO IMPACT ON BIODIVERSITY (EFFECT) AQUACULTURE (CAUSE) Intro Aquaculture can be thought of as a practice that it similar to farming. It involves the cultivation of aquatic dwelling organisms either on land, in a tank system or artificial pond (offshore), or in a naturally occurring waterbody using nets or cages to contain the farmed organisms (Lee and Yoo 2014; Rabasso and Hernandez 2015). Aquaculture as an industry has grown significantly in the past few decades, growing to meet the demanding needs of the human food supply network (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008; Borja et al. 2009; Rabasso and Hernandez 2015), as it is an important natural resource (Ormerod 2003). This increase in captive cultivation has slowed the unsustainable practice of mass catching wild stocks as a supply (Santos et al. 2015; Frazer 2009). Aquaculture exists as one of the fastest growing industries in the world today (Naylor et al. 2001), and this growth is projected to increase ever further (Froehlic et al. 2017). Despite this, many of these cultured organisms can have a nega tive impact on the environment that they inhabit (Fleming et al. 1996; Boyd 2003), in part because of its proximity with the natural environment (Abdou et al. 2017). Aquaculture has the ability to greatly impact biodiversity as well if not carefully managed. These impacts on biodiversity can resonate through multiple trophic levels, and can completely change the natural environment. The greatest impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible invasion of escapees, the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population. Through these modes of disruption, aquaculture has the ability to drastically alter the present biodiversity if not managed appropriately. #1: the possible invasion of escapees The possibility of escaped organisms invading a habitat, and pushing out a native species is quite high when aquaculture is in or near existing waterbodies. A wide variety of organisms are farmed in the world (Naylor et al. 2001). From this, Aquaculture has led to the introduction of many invasive species into the ecosystem, and poor practices may cause invasion occurrences to happen more often (Naylor et al. 2001). The escape of cultured organisms can threaten both the habitats and gene pool of wild populations, causing them, and the surrounding biodiversity to change drastically (Fleming et al. 1996). The organisms that are either intentionally, or unintentionally released are able to reproduce in their new habitat rather successfully (Fleming et al. 1996; Volpe 2000). Many escapes such as salmon, are able to out compete, and out number the wild populations, thus threatening their survival (Fleming et al. 1996). Their invasion may lead to a change in ecosystem dynamics, effectively impacting the natural biodiversity that would otherwise be present. #2: the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication The degradation of the natural environment is just one of the many drawbacks that Aquaculture presents. As a result of the exponential growth of the industry, the sustainability and environmental impact of Aquaculture is often scrutinized (Rabasso and Hernandez 2015) for the elevated levels of greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient pollution, water use, and land use that has followed (Gephart et al. 2016). There are many detrimental practices to Aquaculture such as: water pollution from pond discharge, the excessive use of antibiotics to combat disease, Salinization of land from pond leeching, and the mass consumption of freshwater for farming purposes (Boyd 2003). Many of these practices degrade the environment, and threaten biodiversity in such a way that is irreversible. Aquaculture, and in particular fish farms, are an increasing cause of anthropogenic disturbance [in] benthic communities, (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008). Often when farmed within an natural waterbody, fish cages and nets s ee the release of large quantities of organic waste matter that are spread by water-flow and may lead to biochemical changes, and cause the deoxygenation of the aquatic environment, further impacting benthic communities (Zhang and Kitazawa 2016; Diaz-Almela et al. 2008; OCarroll et al. 2016). In the aquaculture industry, fish farming can promote an increased rate of eutrophication which can severely damage coastal ecosystems (Yu et al. 2016) through the addition of elements such as Nitrogen and Phosphorous (Penczak et al. 1982). The damage caused by eutrophication can lead to a disturbance like effect, which can in turn, cause a significant decrease in the biodiversity of that area (Abdou et al. 2017), further degrading the environment. In an attempt to combat the damage caused when farming within a natural ecosystem, many countries of the European Union (including Canada, the United States, and Australia) are beginning to establish offshore farming with the hope for improved sustainability (Froehlic et al. 2017). Social Learning Theory: Outline and Evaluate Social Learning Theory: Outline and Evaluate Ellie Thomas Criminology Outline what is meant by the term identification in relation to the social learning theory approach. [2 marks] Identification is a psychological process whereby someone identifies with something from another person, typically a model of theirs, and then uses this in order to change their personality. For example, a little boy may identify with his older brother because they are both male, and so when he sees him stealing from a shop, he copies. Explain one limitation of the social learning theory approach. [3 marks] This approach is less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to behave a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our behaviour, and doesnt just stick to one theory as to why we behave the way that we do. Outline and evaluate the social learning theory approach. Refer to the behaviourist approach as part of your evaluation. Even though the social learning theory (SLT) does agree with the behaviourist theory that most of our behaviour is learned through experience Bandura also propose the idea that people can learn through different way, e.g. observation and imitation. Learning does occur through classical and operant conditioning; however, we can also learn indirectly through watching others and learning from mistakes. Another word for this is vicarious reinforcement; learning through observing and imitating; indirectly. An individual observes the behaviour of someone and if the behaviour is received positively, they would learn that they can do that, and if it is received negatively, they will know to never do it. So, if someone is punished we learn not to copy the behaviour, and if someone is rewarded we know that we should or could repeat that behaviour! A huge idea throughout the SLT approach is the role of mediational processes. This is the concept that mental processes effect our behaviour. These mental factors, or mediational processes, created by Bandura, are: attention the extent to which we notice certain behaviours; retention how well the behaviour is remembered; motor reproduction the ability to perform the behaviour; and motivation the will to perform the behaviour. Identification is also a key concept in SLT. This is when people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people we identify with. These are known as models. We can find models in people we find attractive, family, friends, and peers, and people of high status. If we see our model behaving in a certain way, we are more lily to copy it (imitate it). One strength of the social learning theory is that it is less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to behave a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our behaviour, and doesnt just stick to one theory as to why we behave the way that we do. Another strength of this approach is that it explains cultural differences in behaviour. This theory can explain how people living in Nigeria behave differently to people living in England, for example, because it says our behaviour is through learning from those around us and the societies in which we live. This has been a useful concept in understanding why children from different countries act differently, for example how they come to understand their gender role. A final strength of the social learning theory approach is that it shows the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Conditioning alone, whether it operant, classical, or both, cannot provide a good enough explanation for behaviour. Humans and animals alike learn and remember behaviours which they should do. For example, from a young child children learn from their older siblings mistakes and therefore avoid doing that punished behaviour. Bandura observed a similar thing with his bobo doll, as when children were shown an adult hitting a bobo doll and getting away with it, they repeated the behaviour, however when they saw an adult getting in trouble for it, they didnt. Therefore, this is a strength because it provides a more comprehensive and detailed explanation of behaviour. However, a weakness of the SLT approach is that it over-relies on evidence from lab studies. Many of the ideas that Bandura developed were all tested through lab studies, and not real life situations. Studies done in labs can often not be a true reflection of what the researcher is investigating because of this. For example, the children in Banduras bobo doll experiment may have understood that as they were not in a real-life situation being shown a video of an aggressive adult, for example they were supposed to copy the behaviours of the adult or they may have acted the way they thought they were supposed to. Therefore, the research may tell us little about how the children truly would have behaved. A final evaluation point of this approach is the weakness that the SLT underestimates the influence of biological factors. Little reference to biological factors are mentioned by Bandura in this approach. However, we can see from his studies that biology does take a toll. For example, boys were found to be more aggressive towards the bobo doll, however we know that testosterone is a hormone found naturally in males, that makes them more aggressive by nature. Therefore, we cannot put down their behaviour entirely to learning, as biology must play a role in it.

jacksonian :: essays papers

jacksonian Although the flood waters of poverty, unemployment, and famine known as the Great Depression began to recede under Hoover’s administration, it was Franklin Delano Roosevelt and his administration who saw to the retreat of the destitute ways of life that had enveloped the nation. When FDR took office, he intended to change the government in order to include help for the plight of the â€Å"forgotten man†. He had a plan for the change known as the â€Å"New Deal†. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs aimed at three R’s - relief, recovery, and reform. Also, through his New Deal programs, one can see all he did during the Depression to relieve suffering and jump start the economy. In the New Deal program, Roosevelt had short and long - range goals. One of his first short-range goals was relief - especially in the first 100 days. At the time of Roosevelt’s inauguration, one out of every four people was unemployed. Since FDR was intent upon ending human suffering first and foremost, he decided to be open about using federal money to aid the unemployed. With the okay from FDR, the Hundred Days Congress passed much legislation in order to help in the first short range goal - to give immediate relief. In 1933, Congress created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which provided employment in fresh - air government camps for about 3 million uniformed young men. Their work included reforestation, fire fighting, flood control, and swamp drainage. Also new in 1933 was the Federal Emergency Relief Act (FERA). It was the first major effort of Congress to deal with the unemployed adults, and its chief purpose was immediate relief rather than long-range re covery. Other legislation passed by Congress included the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), and Civil Works Administration (CWA). Roosevelt’s other short - term goal, recovery, was also off to a good start in the first 100 days of FDR’s administration. There were many legislative acts passed by Congress in order to allow for a quick recovery for the nation. The two best examples of recovery in the first 100 days would be the Emergency Banking Relief Act, which allowed the president to regulate banking transactions and foreign exchange and to reopen solvent banks, and the National Industrial Recovery Act. The National Industrial Recovery Act, which created the National Recovery Administration (NRA), designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed, and the Public Works Administration (PWA), intended for industrial recovery, as well as unemployment relief.

Admissibility of FMRI

Functional magnetic resonance imaging, or FMRI, is a technique for measuring brain activity. It works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity – when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and to meet this increased demand blood flow increases to the active area.FMRI can be used to produce activation maps showing which parts of the brain are involved in a particular mental process (FMRIB Center).This is how it works: oxygen is delivered to neurons by haemoglobin in capillary red blood cells. When neuronal activity increases there is an increased demand for oxygen and the local response is an increase in blood flow to regions of increased neural activity.Haemoglobin is diamagnetic when oxygenated but paramagnetic when deoxygenated. This difference in magnetic properties leads to small differences in the MR signal of blood depending on the degree of oxygenation.Since blood oxygenation varies according to the le vels of neural activity these differences can be used to detect brain activity. This form of MRI is known as blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) imaging (id).It is claimed that through this process, FMRI can be used as a lie detector test. The question now arises that should the FMRI be used as a lie detector test, will the results be admissible in evidence in our courts of law in light of the Daubert ruling? This paper will try to answer this question by testing FMRI against the four questions set up by the Supreme Court in the said decision.Is FMRI a testable technique?The Supreme Court, in discussing how evidence should pass this test, the judge must ascertain whether the reasoning or methodology underlying the testimony is scientifically valid and of whether that reasoning or methodology properly can be applied to the facts in issue.A key question to be answered in determining whether a theory or technique is scientific knowledge that will assist the trier of fact will be w hether it can be(and has been) tested (92-102). The main concern of the Supreme Court here is the reliability of the technique and reduction of falsifiability.FMRI is one of the most recently developed forms of neuroimaging but the idea underpinning the technique – inferring brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow – is not new (FMRIB Center). The technique, however, is relatively new.FMRI still has not gained acceptance as a reliable method of lie detection to replace the polygraph. Recent studies only indicate that FMRI may be more reliable than the polygraph but FMRI is yet to attain its full potential.Dr. Faro, in studying FMRI admits that because the polygraph test, while improved over the last 10 to 15 years, is not as accurate as it needs to be, a better method for detecting deception clearly needs to be developed (Orenstein 30).He add that he is convinced that FMRI used with or without polygraph will someday be the new gold standard (id). The scientist s remain hopeful the FMRI will someday be the standard. But as of today, its acceptability as a lie detection test is still on a thin balance. In short, FMRI has not yet been fully tested so as to be acceptable as a lie detection method.Despite this, it is noteworthy that FMRI lie detection centers have already been set up in the United States. They are No Lie MRI, Incorporated and Cephos Corporation. This shows that FMRI is gaining ground as a stand alone test for lie detection and not just merely as a supplement to the polygraph.Has FMRI been peer reviewed?  The concern of the Supreme Court in including this test is to make sure that the theory or technique has been subjected to scrutiny by the science community because it is only then that the substantive flaws of the methodology can be revealed.Without effort, FMRI will pass this test. FMRI has been subjected to tests and retests by a lot of scientists to verify its efficiency and effectiveness. In fact the University of Oxfor d established its own FMRIB Center to study it as a field of discipline.As mentioned earlier, Dr. Faro already tested whether it can replace the polygraph or not. And lastly, there are also plenty of studies on FMRI being conducted as of this moment because it has inspired general interest in the science community. The abstracts of these studies can be viewed in the internet.Does FMRI have a known error rate or standard controlling it operation?The error rate of FMRI has not yet been established because as mentioned earlier, it is a recent development in nueroimaging and still has not been tested thoroughly. However, Dr. Faro says that subjects would have to lie perfectly for them to beat the FMRI (Orenstein, id).He says that FMRI would be much harder to beat than polygraph because it measures a primary cognitive response that begins within the deep structures of the brain.Lying involves coordinating complex activations in many different parts of the brain that relate to awareness, understanding, inhibition, and emotion.One way of arguing the admissibility of the FMRI according to this test is to argue how polygraphs are admissible in courts. According to the American Polygraph Association, polygraph results are admissible in some federal circuits and states (Orenstein, id).And this is so even though the polygraph is only 85% to 90% accurate when the subjects are being deceptive and only 70% to 75% accurate when subjects are being truthful. If polygraphs are admissible in court, then FMRI should also be admissible considering that the latter is more accurate than the former.However, there is a great cloud over the admissibility of the FMRI when the procedure of conducting it is considered. Subjects participating in a fMRI experiment are asked to lie still and are usually restrained with soft pads to prevent small motions from disturbing measurements.It is possible to correct for some amount of head movement with post-processing of the data, but large transient motion can render these attempts futile. Generally motion in excess of 3 millimeters will result in unusable data.Thus, a very accurate data is hard to obtain from FMRI. A movement of only 3 millimeters will already render the data useless. Considering that the shortest time needed to conduct an FMRI is 15 minutes, it is easy to conclude that an FMRI is hardly accurate.Of course, this can be addressed by utilizing mechanisms to reduce movements. And the FMRI centers should have already addressed this problem. But standing as it is, this fact casts doubt on the admissibility of FMRI because of the possible large inaccurcies of the data gathered during testing.There is also a concern on the reliability of the FMRI with regard to complex lies. Complex lies are half truths and sometimes rhetorical answers to the standard questions asked during an FMRI session. They are answers which have shades of truth or just an answer with a misperception about a question. This area of FMRI still ha s not been studied thoroughly making it less reliable as a method of lie detection.Is the underlying science generally accepted?Yes, the underlying science behind FMRI is generally accepted. As mentioned earlier, the idea underpinning the technique (FMRI) – inferring brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow – is not new. The study of FMRI draws from physics, psychology, neuroanatomy, statistics and electrophysiology, all of which are generally accepted fields of discipline. Thus, under this test, FMRI is admissible in evidence.ConclusionIn conclusion, FMRI is not admissible in evidence when tested against the Daubert standards. First of all, it still has not been thoroughly tested as a science. The method of conducting has not yet been perfected by the testing centers. These two factors accounts for somewhat doubtful results and may seem not convincing before the eyes of the courts.In fact, criticisms as to the accuracy of the data gathered during FMRI have al ways been the the biggest factors in sustaining its non-acceptability. Issues raised such as there are non-neural influences in the change of magnetic fields in the blood vessels have been raised and these have not been specifically addressed by the current studies on FMRI.It has also been raised that FMRI only measures the secondary physiological correlates of neural activity, it is not a direct measure. This means it is not a truly quantitative measure of mental activity – when comparing the FMRI response between individuals it is impossible to say whether the differences are neural or physiological in origin (FMRIB Center).These are the scientific arguments against the FMRI. Of course, there are also ethical arguments against its use but they will not be discussed in this paper for being irrelevant.One argument which, to the mind of this reader, will really cause the courts to strike down FMRI evidence as inadmissible is the constitutional argument that it violates the rig ht to privacy. During an FMRI session, collateral information about the subject may be obtained but which he would have wanted to keep secret. This is a violation of the right to privacy.  Of course, it is already established that such a mechanical method of subjecting one's self to physical examination is not violative of the right against self-incrimination. However, this is not the case I am pointing out. What if some information not related to the trial or to the case has been obtained during the FMRI session?True that it will not be offered in evidence but the damage of violating the right to privacy has already been incurred. What will the subject do then? If the FMRI violates the constitutional right to privacy, then anything obtained during such sessions, though irrelevant and immaterial to the case, should be kept confidential and inadmissible in evidence in all courts and tribunals.Secondly, the FMRI should be inadmissible in evidence because its error rate still has not been determined to a certain definitive degree. It matters not if polygraph evidence is admissible in many federal and state courts. As of the moment, the Supreme Court still has no definitive ruling as to its admissibility (Orenstein).Moreover, the accuracy of the data obtained during FMRI sessions is still in doubt when the procedure is considered. The fact that a 3-millimeter movement will render the data untruthful is enough for the courts to cast a doubtful eye on FMRI evidence. As to the matter of complex lies, this provides the subjects a way to beat the FMRI.They even do not have to lie. They can just answer half-truths or even use rhetorical answers and they could already beat the FMRI.All these point to rejection of FMRI evidence considering the attitude of the courts toward the Daubert principle. In fact, litigants say that courts are more strict than what the Supreme Court suggested in the Daubert case (Hileman 2003).However, as a statement of hope for FMRI, today is no t the timely moment to test its admissibility in our courts of law. It should be given more time to develop into a better-founded discipline and its loopholes tied end-to-end. Then perhaps someday, our society will find it a very reliable method in lie detection and the results be admissible in evidence in our courts of law. Works CitedIntroduction to FMRI. FMRIB Center, University of Oxford. December 4, 2007. http://www.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/education/fmri/introduction-to-fmri/introduction/Orenstein, Beth. Guilty? Investigating FMRI's Future as a Lie Detector. May 16, 2005. Radiology Today. Vol 6 No. 10 p. 30.Supreme Court of the United State. Daubert vs Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals. June 28, 1993. retrieved December 4, 2007. http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/92-102.ZO.htmlWeiller C et al (2006). â€Å"Clinical potential of brain mapping using MRI†. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 23 (6): 840–850Scott A. Huettel, Allen W. Song, Gregory McCarthy, Functional Ma gnetic Resonance Imaging, Sinauer Associates, 2004.Hileman, Bette. Daubert Rules Challenge Courts. July 7, 2003. Our Stolen Future. Retrieved December 4, 2007. http://www.ourstolenfuture.org/press/2003/2003-0707-CEN-daubert.htmSilberman, Steve. Don't Even Think About Lying. Wired Magazine. Retrieved December 4, 2007. http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.01/lying_pr.html

Expository essay Essays - Book Of Genesis, Hebrew Bible, Torah

Expository essay Essays - Book Of Genesis, Hebrew Bible, Torah Expository essay In this essay I will be explaining the bible verses Genesis 16, 18:16-33, 22:1-19. In the Bible it speaks on how God discovers that Abraham ought not be kept oblivious with respect to what God is "going to do" (18:17). God is worried that Abraham charges his relatives to "do honesty," that is, to do equity to the association with God in which they stand. On the off chance that Abraham did not do this, there would be no transmission of the confidence to the people to come and consequently no group to whom the guarantees apply. God's underlying words to Abraham (18:20-21) report the cries of unidentified people about the gravity of the wrongdoings of Sodom. God takes part in a legal request with Abraham, and God- - deciding to show Abraham the methods for equity - counsels with him in regards to the gravity of the circumstance in Sodom. God's utilization of the dialect of "if not" proposes that the fate of Sodom remains to some degree open, regardless of the possibility that God has to begin with chosen what to do. Abraham now remains before God and draws in God with respect to the circumstance in Sodom (18:22-33). He brings up sharp issues with God about the preparatory choice to obliterate the city. He is limit and determined, understanding that God invites such a test (such difficulties to God are additionally present in the mourns; for instance, Psalm 13). "Should not the Judge of all the earth do what is only?" (18:25b). Abraham is particularly worried that the noble in the city not be dealt with in an indistinguishable path from the devilish and brings the issue up in these terms: what number upright should there be in the city for God to spare it? God respects the question as an honest to goodness one. Abraham, for obscure reasons, begins with the number fifty and in the end works his way down to ten. God reacts emphatically to each question Abraham raises. While the numbers ought not be translated in an absolutely exacting manner, they raise the issue of "minimum amount." That is, what numbers of exemplary are important to spare the city from its own particular damaging ways? The development of mischievousness in any group can turn out to be so profound and expansive that there is a lacking number of honorable left in the city to turn the circumstance around. At the point when the number gets down to ten, Abraham perceives this to be the situation and leaves off the scrutinizing, perceiving that the pulverization of the city would be simply. Abraham continues to bring up particular issues about God's preparatory choice to pulverize Sodom in view of the objection against its subjects. The References "BibleGateway." Genesis 18:16-33,Genesis 19:1-29 NIV - - Bible Gateway. BibleGateway, 2014. Web. 17 Feb. 2017 Edition, Anglicized. "Genesis 18:16-33 - God Consults with Abraham." Enter the Bible. The New Revised Standard Version, 2013. Web. 17 Feb. 2017.