Biography of Wilbur Wright, Aviation Pioneer

Wilbur Wright (1867-1912) was one half of the aviation pioneering duo known as the Wright Brothers. Together with his brother Orville Wright, Wilbur Wright invented the first airplane to make the first manned and powered flight possible. Wilbur Wrights Early Life Wilbur Wright was born on April 16, 1867, in Millville, Indiana. He was the third child of Bishop Milton Wright and Susan Wright. After his birth, the family moved to Dayton, Ohio. Bishop Wright has in the habit of bringing his sons souvenirs from his church travels. One such souvenir was a whirling top toy, that sparked the Wright Brothers lifelong interest in flying machines. In 1884, Wilbur completed high school and the next year he attended special classes in Greek and trigonometry, however, a hockey accident and his mothers illness and death kept Wilbur Wright from finishing his college education. The Wright Brothers Early Career Ventures   On March 1, 1889, Orville Wright began publishing the short-lived West Side News, a weekly newspaper for West Dayton. Wilbur Wright was the editor and Orville was the printer and publisher. All his life, Wilbur Wright teamed with his brother Orville to develop various businesses and enterprises. Among the Wright Brothers various enterprises were a printing firm and a bicycle shop. Both of these ventures showcased their mechanical aptitude, business sense, and originality. The Pursuit of Flight Wilbur Wright was inspired by the work of German glider Otto Lilienthal, which  led to his desire to fly and his belief that manned flight was possible. Wilbur Wright read everything available on the then-new science of aviation—including all the Smithsonians technical papers on aviation—to study the projects of other aviators. Wilbur Wright thought of a novel solution to the problem of flight, which he described as a simple system that twisted, or warped the wings of a biplane, causing it to roll right and left. Wilbur Wright made history with the first-ever heavier-than-air, manned, powered flight in 1903. Wilbur Wrights Writings In 1901, Wilbur Wrights article, Angle of Incidence, was published in the Aeronautical Journal, and Die Wagerechte Lage Wahrend des Gleitfluges, was published in Ilustrierte Aeronautische Mitteilungen. These were the Wright Brothers first published writings on aviation. The same year, Wilbur Wright gave a speech to the Western Society of Engineers on the Wright Brothers gliding experiments. The Wrights First Flight On December 17, 1903,  Wilbur and Orville Wright made the first free, controlled, and sustained flights in a power-driven, heavier-than-air machine. The first flight was piloted by Orville Wright at 10:35 a.m., the plane stayed twelve seconds in the air and flew 120 feet. Wilbur Wright piloted the longest flight that day in the fourth test, fifty-nine seconds in the air and 852 feet. Wilbur Wrights Death In 1912 Wilbur Wright died after suffering from typhoid fever.

A Brief Note On The Sun And The Circumstances Of The...

Racism – the word has a harsh sound to the ear and racism’s effects deliver a harsh reality to victims. The novel Raisin in the Sun and the circumstances of the Moulin Rouge Hotel-Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, tell how racism destroyed dreams and crushed the soul through discrimination and lost opportunity. But there’s another side to the racism story. For some of the oppressed, discrimination and hardship will be fought with perseverance and achievement. In both the fictional Raisin in the Sun and the historical Moulin-Rouge Casino, a black woman, against great odds, will achieve personal and historic success. Racism in America directed toward black people originated over 300 years ago with the first importation of black slaves into the America from Africa (Frederickson). While great progress in eliminating explicit racism has taken place, American society has far to go in ensuring that blacks have the same protections, advantages and freedoms as whites. Raci al discrimination in this country continues to harm millions of black Americans whether it is through an inferior education, unfair treatment in the judicial and law enforcement systems or delivery of sub-optimal health care. While the government can play a role in solving this problem with legislation, equitable law enforcement and national education, it will also take a recognition of the problem and then a focused, long-term effort by generations of families to acknowledge and remove the many stumbling blocks of

What Does Democracy Signifies Free Essays

If firms were not in a competitive environment, they would be able to control the market. Still, there are other factors, which stop firms from controlling the market. Namely the fact that firms do not have perfect information, issues about its objectives or firms may not even know how to maximise profits. We will write a custom essay sample on What Does Democracy Signifies or any similar topic only for you Order Now This is due to the fact that companies use different pieces of information or interpret it differently. Firms can use different tasks in order to achieve the same aim. Companies often set themselves in mission statement; or they try to set goals by which the statement will be achieved; or a specific objective. A firm aims to maximise profits, and that is what this essay will focus on. First, it will give a brief definition of firm and define its objectives. Second, it will examine the assumption of profit maximisation. Third it will confirm whether firms really maximise their profits. Then it will follow by mentioning other alternatives to profit maximisation. Finally in the conclusion, it will include the results of this essay. It is understood by firm ‘ an organisation consisting of one or more individuals working as a decision-making unit to produce goods or services† (Atkinson, B. R. Miller â€Å"Business Economics†). The firm†s objectives are to maximise profits. The amount that the company receives for the sale of its output is called its total revenue. The amount that the firm pays to buy inputs is called its total cost. We, then, define profit as a firm†s total revenue minus its total cost. Thus, if a firm gets  £10,000 from selling its output and spends  £90,000 producing this output, its profit is  £10,000. The above diagram shows how costs, revenue and profit interact with each other. Costs go up with output as well as revenue, but just till a certain point. Revenue falls due to the firm†s necessity to lower its costs in order to rise selling. In other words, in the cost curve firms will experience increasing returns, followed by decreased returns. Revenue will rise, as price falls and quantity goes up. Profits will occur between the two points were the curves intersect. The slope of the two curves are the same and they are given by the marginal value (marginal revenue and marginal cost). Hence, to maximise profit, marginal revenue must equals marginal cost. In order to achieve this, firms must have all the details on the demanded product. Profit maximisation plays an important role within a firm, as it makes innovation possible as well as the payment of higher wages and greater job offers. Moreover, profits create incentives as it is rewarding for entrepreneurs, whose time and skills contributed to the firm†s success. Increasing profits leads to a rise in output and with it consumers also get more satisfied. Thus, it can be said that it is also beneficial to society to raise profits. Profits provide a source of revenue, which reverts in favour of new factories and machinery. In addition, profits encourage innovation again society benefits from it. However, there are still motives for companies to refuse to have high levels of profit. Companies will just be able to maximise profits if owners are in control of the firms. However, in big companies such as Coca-Cola or Shell where, probably, there are many shareholders, it is more difficult to maximise profits. As, in this case managers are more likely to run the business. This leads us to do so called ‘principal-agent problem†. Where owners† objectives may be different from the managers. Hence, due to the rise of the joint-stock company there has developed a split between ownership and control. Ownership belongs now to shareholders, while managers exerce the power of controling. Still, there are motives to choose to maximise profits. Firstly, profit maximisation is still a sign of power, so in a competitive environment firms will opt to maximise profit to ensure its survival; Secondly, both the principal and agent, when confroting a situation of no option, they would prefer to maximise profits rather than lower them; Most important, due to profit maximisation it became possible for economists to study the output and the price of companies and, consequently, study the market. In analysing the managerial approach, it can be noticed that managers will then aim to take precedents over the objectives of the owner. In this case the primary goal of a firm is to maximise its revenue. This will occur because managers† remuneration is more likely to be linked to revenue than to profitability. For example, bank†s tend to regard growing sales positive as well as financial markets, who likes to see growing sales revenue. Most important, sales revenue is still seen as an indication of success. The same occurs to firms that have their main aim to maximise growth. Just like raising revenue, raising growth also leads to higher bonuses. Managers also benefit from it because their status gets better, as the firm has more prestige. Such theory, also suggests that managers try to maximise their own profit benefits. In other words, use firms to get their objectives. Still, there is other theory that states that managers in fact do not maximise anything at all, but they attend to satisfactory levels, theory developed by H. Simon. Here, managers will set a minimum level of profit, keeping shareholders satisfied. This type of approach is probably used by small firms, which are not able to take the big risks that profit maximisation can lead to. Moreover, managers try to keep all members of the firm satisfied, so profit maximisation becames a hard task to achieve. In general, conditions of uncertainty difficults the achievement of sales and profit maximisation. In practise management tries to obtain growth in output and assets from one year to the next and achieve satisfactory growth. On one hand, it is true to say that there is a separation of ownership and control, consequently, this stresses the importance of managers. On the other hand, it is difficult to describe how the different objectives of management and shareholders interact to produce the goals and objectives of the company. How to cite What Does Democracy Signifies, Papers

A Rhetorical Analysis of Editorial, “the Effects of Violence in Children’s Cartoons” Example For Students

A Rhetorical Analysis of Editorial, â€Å"the Effects of Violence in Children’s Cartoons† Claim: That childrens cartoons today are too violent and that these cartoons are greatly affecting their behaviors growing up. That violence is a learned behavior and therefore children that view violence can become violent themselves. The purpose of the argument is to raise the awareness about cartoon violence and come up with some solutions to lessen its negative impact on the children that are watching them. The primary target audiences of this argument are those that have the most direct contact with children, mainly their parents and teachers. Faced with the increasing popularity of animation, they feel that youngsters are developing a cartoon mentality, confusing fantasy and reality, and are imitating the actions they see on the screen. The author feels very strongly about the message he is trying to make and uses emotional, logical, and ethical triggers throughout the article to make his point and bring the reader over to his idea. (PATHOS) This statement seems to be an attempt to shock the audience to the idea that there is purposeful plot by the media to teach children that violence is an acceptable way to act. (PATHOS) The reader is given a comparison between witnessing domestic violence and cartoon violence. The author makes the argument that both will lead to a child becoming a violent adult. (PATHOS) By using terms like â€Å"shooting† and â€Å"killing parents† the author is hoping to connect with the audience’s fear that cartoon violence could lead to drastic results. (PATHOS) This statement tries to prompt a sense of guilt in the audience that they are are just sitting their kids in front of the television instead of being attentive parents. (LOGOS) This seems a logical premise to help substantiate the authors point and uses a research example as evidence. (LOGOS) Again, this seems logical and uses a study to show evidence. (LOGOS) The author evokes some possible solutions to that may help resolve some of the problem with identifying violent cartoons. (ETHOS) We do not know who the author is here. Is it a parent, teacher, or maybe a psychologist? The use â€Å"we† and â€Å"our only hope† seem to play on the conscience of the reader that we are all in this together, and together we can find a solution to cartoon violence. The author cites numerous reasons to prove and validate his point, such as the increase in violent acts per hour on television, and percentage of teachers that have reported increases in classroom violence. However, there is no evidence given that ties cartoon violence directly with this. It seems most of the article is the authors interpretation of the topic. He even goes as far as to say that those that disagree with his point are absurd. Is it possible that children become violent from what they see in cartoons? Maybe. But all cartoons are not the same. I think it is ignored that many cartoons also teach children important social and cultural lessons on such as honesty, kindness, and sharing.

King Arthur Vs Zeus Essays - Merlin, Mythological Kings,

King Arthur Vs Zeus Inside the compilation of mythical stories of King Arthur and His Knights of the Round Table, retold by Roger Green, and Heroes, Gods, and Monsters of the Greek Myths, two major characters in each story that could be expressed in similar and contrasting ways are Arthur, the king and head of the knights of the Round Table, and Zeus, the supreme leader of all gods and mortals. Similar resemblances that can be found in both is their shadowy lineage, their major mortal flaws, and their nature to journey on epic quests. Even though they were very similar in some aspects, the two were also very different in other means. Arthur is much more kind to his people and cares about them, while Zeus does not view his subjects as worthy of him and treats them unjustly. An additional difference is Arthur is more mild and not taking harsh action all the time, though Zeus is known for being severe. There are many similarities as well as differences that are attributed to these two mythical characters. Arthur and Zeus can be noted for their mysterious childhood and ways they were treated at infancy. Both had prophesies of prosperity that led them into adulthood. When Arthur was born, Uther Pendragon, the leader of the Britons, killed a man and married his wife, Igrayne. Uther and Igrayne had one child, but not much longer after it was born, Merlin the enchanter took him away. Soon after, the boy was placed in the arms of Sir Ector, a noble knight. Later, the youth pulled the sword out of a stone that proclaimed that he was the king of all Britain. This young man would later on grow up to be King Arthur. Not unlike Arthur, Zeus also had a unnatural background. Before Zeus was born, there was a prophecy that stated that Cronos, the king of all gods, would be overthrown by one of his sons. When Zeus was born, he was concealed from his father. As time went by, Zeus waged a war against Cronos and defeated him. Though Zeus and Arthur came from entirely different locations and times, thei r childhood's were related on account of both of them being hazy. Even though some might not consider either of the two ?mortal?, Arthur and Zeus had very notable human-like flaws. They both seemed to rush to judgements hastily, and were very passionate towards women. When Arthur hears about King Pellinore and how he is shamelessly killing knights, Arthur runs off to fight. Obviously, Arthur does not give himself time to think, and would have died if it was not for Merlin. Another example would be when Arthur runs off to the Castle of Tarn Wathelyne and pays no heed to Sir Gawain's warnings. King Arthur ends up being tricked by Morgana Le Fay and would perish save a horrid woman who forced Sir Gawain to marry her for King Arthur's life. Many times King Arthur would have been killed if it weren't for his friends such as Merlin and Sir Gawain. Zeus showed the same characteristic even though it played no part in death for himself. The mighty god jumped to his feet and killed when he found out that Ascelpsius was curing mortals headed to the underworld . Later, Zeus regretted his act of terror and brought Ascelpsius back to life. Passionate feelings for other women, and desire for romance were huge faults in Arthur and Zeus. Arthur's feelings for Guinevere led to the downfall of the Logres. At first, when Arthur saw Guinevere, he immediately fell in love with her. Through carelessness and desire for romance, Arthur neglected Merlin's advice of not marrying the queen. When Guinevere and Lancelot had an affair, a war started, and the realm was destroyed. In Zeus' case, the gods are not affected by romantic affairs, but the mortals they make love with are affected. Zeus approached many different gods or mortals, even though he is already married to Hera. Hera occasionally followed Zeus, and punished the ones with whom he had affairs. The mythical figures Arthur and Zeus both have major moral flaws: rashness and crave for passion. King Arthur and Zeus are best known for their

Censorship1 essays

Censorship1 essays The freedom to read is essential to the democratic way of life. But today, that freedom is under attack. Private groups and public authorities everywhere are working to remove both books and periodicals from sale, to exclude certain books from public schools, to censor and silence magazines and newspapers, and to limit "controversial" books and periodicals to the general public. The suppression of reading materials is suppression of creative thought. Books and periodicals are not the only ones being suppressed by pressures to the political and social systems. They are also being brought against the educational system, films, radio, television, and against the graphic and theatre arts. However or whenever these attacks occur, they usually fall at least one of the following categories: Religion War Sociology Language Inappropriate Adolescent Behaviour What is Obscenity? Clearly something hard to talk about constructively. "Obscenity" is difficult to discuss honestly. After all, what makes a thing obscene? It is Something too vague perhaps to be defined. It's an elusive term we use, but can't explain. Different people often see things differently. Some see obscenity in nude pictures, statues, paintings, etc. While others find less obscenity in these things. All the same, "obscene" isn't the same as "wrong" or "bad". Clearly obscenity is not identical with evil. It only covers a single segment of it. But what is that segment? A look at the words "obscenity" and "pornography" suggests that it is a segment that didn't worry people very much till relatively recently. Though censorship was known in english law quite early on, ...

Early Childhood Learning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Early Childhood Learning - Essay Example The third part will summarize some of the commentaries on the controversy and finally the conclusion will discuss which if any view is correct, and the importance of the controversy at hand. In an experiment conducted by Booth and Waxman (2002), a group of three years old children were subject to the same objects which were separated into two groups, either as animate objects or artifacts. When some of the objects with eyes on them, which are strong perceptual cues to animacy, and the objects were presented as artifacts, the children characterized them as artifacts. This shows that even in the face of strong perceptual gestures, conceptual information still aids the process of word learning in childhood, a view that contradicts the Attentional Learning Account view. Something which sparked a number of responses and different interpretations to this experiment but which face certain difficulties that further support the view that conceptual information does have a role in early word learning. First it was noted that both conc... s, in what sense then is perceptual information immune to conceptual information This simply means that if two factors affect the same variable, the only way one of the factors can be immune to the other is if one of them does not have an effect at all on the variable, something that the experiment mentioned above excludes. Second it was claimed by the Attentional Learning Account that perceptual information contributes directly to word learning unaided by any conceptual information; the experiment shows however that perceptual learning can be aided by conceptual information in a way that can change the outcome of the experiment. A special case of these two different views will be taken into account; namely the disagreement about the shape bias. The controversy over the role of conceptual learning in early word learning for children has initiated the shape bias controversy; briefly stated it is an implication of the two views outlined above. On the one hand the proponents of the Attentional Learning Account claim that shape bias does not emerge until infants are able to distinguish at least 50 nouns which is in line with the claim they support that conceptual knowledge is only available much later. On the other hand Booth and Waxman have shown with an experiment they conducted with 18 to 22 months old children with vocabulary that does not exceed 18 nouns that these children have extended their uses of words on the basis of shape. This experiment thus interpreted challenges the whole of the Attentional Learning Account proponents. In a paper in the Developmental Science journal, Booth and Waxman have shown experiments in support of the Attentional Learning Account view and have tried to show that they can be interpreted in a way that does not do any harm to their view

Social science research Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Social science research - Assignment Example Apparently both methods draw considerable advantages and disadvantages and in this essay, I seek to critically evaluate them and on their application in social science works. The main advantage of the qualitative methodology is that, it employs a descriptive, modest, and inductive techniques of data collection that are compatible with social science works (McRoy, n.d.). It is the most advocated method when social workers are studying issues or topics that do not agree with the quantitative research approach. From a social psychological basis, qualitative method is coherent with person-in-environment of social science professional practice. In dealing with patient’s issues and treatment, doctors, nurses, and clinicians rely on interviews to gather information about a particular client’s illness. Such practitioners, therefore, follow a series of intuitions and working assumptions that are based on observations made through ongoing interaction with the patients. Most training offered to social science practitioner is based on qualitative research, whereby from a qualitative view, they are trained to observe at each case individually (McRoy, n. d.). Unlike quantitative method that focuses on broader social sciences topics; qualitative approach has the advantage of addressing micro-level studies. The micro-level issues include those of small groups, subjects, or organizations and research that are not so much physical, but rather needs a psychological approach. When qualitative research is applied in such topics, it draws a wide range of facets that depict a picture of wholeness in terms of group(s), person (s) or settings of the situation. The depicted picture of a study by a qualitative researcher on micro-level topics is holistic because it pulls all the necessary colours, structures, and textures into the painting(Tewksbury, 2009).The after analysis result is plainly contrasting and can never

What does Castells mean by 'the space of flows' And what relevance Essay

What does Castells mean by 'the space of flows' And what relevance might this idea have for processes of globalisation - Essay Example This paper now seeks to discuss space of flows based on Castells’ description, including its relevance to the different processes of globalisation. An example will also be developed in order to illustrate this discussion. This paper is being carried out in order to understand the more contemporary application and understanding of space of flows within the context of globalisation and all its related elements. Body As was mentioned above, space is basically a tool in the expression of society (Francke and Ham, 2006). The relationship between space and society is essentially full of complications, mostly because space does not reflect society, instead, it is an expression of society (Castells, 1996). Under this context, space is not a copy of society, instead, it is a mirror of society. Spatial elements are based on the complexities of the greater social constructions. Moreover, social processes impact on space by affecting the created environment drawn from previous societal an d spatial elements (Castells, 1996). Space, based on physics cannot be determined beyond the interplay of matter. Social theory discusses that space cannot be evaluated without considering social practices and applications. Castells (1996) assesses space based on material elements and on other material resources, like people, who participate in specific social interactions and social applications. Time and space cannot be evaluated without also considering social actions. Castells (1997) discusses time-sharing social applications and he cites the fact that space considers the practices which take place simultaneously. The distance between material resources and support is no longer essential or significant. Society is built around flows, including the flow of capital resources, of data, of technology, of organizational relations, of images, sounds, as well as symbols (Castells, 1997). Flows, in other words, include various elements within social organizations which manifest the diff erent processes governing people’s lives. Castells (1997) discusses about a spatial form illustrative of social applications which impact and dominate the interactions in society; this is known as the space of flows. Space of flows refers to the â€Å"material organization of time-sharing social practices that work through flows† (Francke and Ham, 2006, p. 8). Castells (1997) also discusses flows to be purposeful and repetitive activities of interactions covering physically non-related positions applied by social actors within the various structures of society. This can also be evaluated with the use of various layers and elements of material support which when taken together make up the space of flows. The initial layer which is the initial support for the space of flows is supported by various electronic variables highlighting the material foundations of the resources significant in the interrelated fabric of society (Crang, 2002). This is considered general and tact ile support for simultaneous applications and practices. It is considered spatial form in the context of the commercial society or the industrial society. Within the context of interactions, no place can survive in isolation as its position is mostly based on flows (Crang, 2002). Places do not fade into oblivion, however their existence is often incorporated into the network. Technological resources which support the network also support the new space. The second layer in the space of flow

Water Management Of The Thar Desert Environmental Sciences Essay

Water Management Of The Thar Desert Environmental Sciences Essay The Thar Desert, also known at the Indian Desert is located partly in Rajasthan state, northwestern India, Punjab province, Sindh province and eastern Pakistan in Asia. (Britannica) Its precise location is between latitudes 24 ° and 28 ° north and between longitude 68 °and 71 ° east. (Irrigation) This desert is considered one of the smallest hot deserts in the world only, 77,000 square miles (200,000km ²) (Britannica) yet it has the highest human population of all deserts in the world. (Kuma) Other deserts have a population density of less than ten people per square kilometer, while Thar has a density of more than eighty people per square kilometer. (BBC) With such a large population which continues to grow, it can put a great strain on the environment and the resources it provides. One very important resource that the environment provided is water. Water is the bases for life on Earth and without it humans would not be able to survive. Not only do humans demand water direc tly, they demand it indirectly for the growth of their livestock and crops. Water management in the Thar Desert has to be constantly looked after to ensure that the supply of water will always be present. There are three main ways to get water in the Thar Desert. First, is the rainfall distribution. Second is the terrain type. Third is importing water from outside the area. (Dhir) All of the water management techniques that the Thar people use can be categorized into one of these ways. No one individual method of obtaining water is fully effective by itself. It takes a combination of many techniques to keep a water supply that can sustain the people who are using it. Some techniques rely solely on the weather conditions in a given year and can fluxuate from year to year and are not always dependable. This is why multiple techniques are used to obtain water, in case one fails there are others to fall back on. The soils in the Thar Desert does not allow for water to remain at the ground surface. The soil is made up of loose and porous sand. This allows for the rainwater to quickly be absorbed by the soil and any extra water moves straight down to the ground water reservoirs, via percolation. Unless the water is captured before it hits the soils surface or contained in something at the surface there is no way to access it without going into the ground water reservoirs. (Irrigation) Capturing rain water would be much easier if more of it came to the Thar Desert. The rainfall that is received is relatively low. In the west, the desert receives 4 inches or less of rain fall and in the east about 20 inches of rainfall. (Britannica) The amount of rainfall an area gets is dependent upon where it is located. The rain is sporadic in most parts. Up to nine-tenths of the rain received by the Thar Desert comes between June and September which is the monsoon season. (Agrican and Irrigation) Due to the fluxuation in rain, in regards to when it arrives, it causes agriculture to fluxuate with it. Before the rains arrive the land production is very poor and after the rains have arrived the land is very productive. In a sense the rainfall determines whether or not there will be an opportunity to grow crops effectively. The more rainfall means there is more availability for crop production and the less rainfall means there is less availability for crop production. After a good rainfall when the desert is full of nutrients and succulent grasses a large number of cattle from the Nara Valley in Pakistan and adjoining areas come to graze in the desert. (Irrigation) Herders also take advantage of the rainfall and move their cattle to areas where the grasses are plentiful and nutritious. When there is not a good rainfall herders must find others areas to grazer their cattle which might include irrigated areas. Other ways to make use of the monsoon rains are to cultivate patches of land that is suitable in the low ground. These low grounds are found between sand-mounds (talis, tals or dhars). When the rains are deemed adequate for cultivating crops these areas are taken advantage of. Budgeting the water can be an effective way to manage the water that is available and relate it to the potential crop production it could yield. A formula was derived consisting of four variables: the availability of reserve supply of soil profile moisture (M), in a given period varies under the influence of rainfall (P), runoff (S), percolation (U) and evapotranspiration (ET). (Sen) The equation for the balance of water is P = S  ± M  ± U + ET. Water budget studies have shown that evapotranspiration accounts for 75-80 percent of the rainfall, percolation accounts for 5-10 percent, and 10-15 percent of the rainfall contributed to increasing the moisture of the soil profile when there is no water going to run-off. Techniques used to balance water on an agricultural farm in the Thar Desert include improving infiltration, deep percolation, control of evapotranspiration, and harvesting run-off. Infiltration can be done by bunding, shattering of hard pan or preparatory tillage. Deep p ercolation can be improved by soil compaction. Improving the control over evapotranspiration can be established by control of evaporation. Harvesting run-off can be improved by inter-plot water harvesting or inter-row water harvesting. By improving the means of which water is budgeted can cause the water that is acquired to be used more effectively for farming practices instead of being acquired by the land where is becomes more difficult to obtain. Irrigation is a means of importing water in from another area and can be used in combination with water budgeting of the rain fall of an area. It is the main way that the people of the Thar support their agriculture. Between 1951 and 1980 there were at least 1,127 irrigation projects that were classified as major or medium that were taken up. Of the 1,127 projects 506 were complete, 17 were almost completed and the others were yielding partial benefits. (Prakash) There was a goal set to achieve 1,130 lakh hectares of grass irrigation potential which was the assessed target. This goal caused an increase in the development of policy for implementing irrigation projects. Irrigation projects have been going on in the Thar Desert long before the 1950s. The Gang Canal Project was started in 1920 and completed in 1928. The project consisted of the construction of a canal that would irrigate the north western part of Ganganagar and have a total length of 1,251 km in Rajasthan. The Bikaner Ca nal would feed into the newly constructed Gang Canal and potentially provide water to the extent of cultural command area (CCA) of three 07,692 ha. (Kuma) This is just one irrigation project that was created and currently still operating in the Thar Desert. Another irrigation project is the Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana (IGNP). This projects main goal was to fetch the river water to the waste stretches of desert in western Rajasthan from the Himalayas. (Kuma) The water would be diverted in Punjab from the Hari-ke-Barrage and travel to Rajasthan. This project started in 1958; one of the 1,127 projects developed and was considered a partial irrigation facility in 1961. The project was separated into two different stages. The first stage focused on the 0-74 km of the main canal and stage 2 focused on the 74-189 km of the main canal. The completion of this irrigation project would potential bring irrigation to 15.85 lakh hectare of semi-arid and arid desert wasteland in a cultural command area spanning across four districts of the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, namely Ganganager, Bikaner, Hanumangarh and Jaisalmer. (Kuma) This project would help to irrigate almost the entire western side of Rajasthan by merely diverting the water from another a rea. In the area of Nagaroarkar, specifically the inland section, the Sind government set up experiments to try to improve water availability. These experiments took place between 1968 and 1969 and possibly could have been included in the 1,127 irrigation projects. The Sind government developed six flood irrigation schemes and four tank construction schemes, Gordharo Bhatiani flood scheme, Ranpur Basin-cum-Inundation Scheme, Surachand Flood irrigation scheme and Bhodosar, Tobiriyo, Nabisar and Ghartiara tanks. (Irrigation) These experiments were successful and provided water reservoirs in these inland sections of Nagarparkar. The reservoirs were used for multiple months after the initial water was stored. The success of these experiments showed that ideas such as these need to be replicated and applied to other areas and try to increase the performance of the ideas. (Agrican and Irrigation) Other areas in the Sind portion of the desert presented promising ideas for the improvement and development of water availability. One development was to repair the existing well and ponds that can be repaired and this action is suitable for the entire desert. A second development was to dig deeper wells and it is mostly suitable for areas along the aquifers in the central and eastern portion so the desert. A third development was to dig a canal from the Indus River which once completed would allow for more expansion of the canal system reaching a wider area. A fourth development was the collection of the rainwater in more effective ways specifically focused on the construction of reservoirs with supporting deep tube-wells. These four developments along with the expansion of the irrigation experiments were compiled in 1985 and fall into the three ways of obtaining water; rainfall, terrain and importing. So over the years since 1920 the development of irrigation projects and other mea ns of acquiring water availability has been an ongoing process. (Agrican and Irrigation) Besides irrigation systems there are also means of conserving what surface water is available from the rainfall. Surface water can be gathered in traditional nadis (small ponds), tankas (underground covered tanks) or khadins (water harvesting structures for agriculture). The nadis are one of the major sources of drinking water both for human and livestock consumption. The nadis are dug by villagers in locations that are deemed natural for catching water in higher yield potential. They are constructed to an optimum size, in dune areas from 1.5 meters to 4 meters and in sandy plain 3 meter to 12 meters, and their depth is typically to the zone of calcrete formation. The nadis are used for an entire village if possible and the water supply that is stored in them could last anywhere from two months to a year after the rains depending on the water usage of the villagers (Centre for Science and Environment). Tankas on the other hand might be owned by an individual family or by the communit y. Tankas are being replaced with pipe-water supplies now since they were mostly used in remote areas. (Dhir) Tankas are underground tanks that are built within a main house or the courtyard of a house. They are constructed during the winter and summer seasons when there is available labor since people are not needed for agricultural labor during these seasons. The tanks consist of a hole dug into the ground about ten feet deep that is circular and is lined with fine polished lime. The catchment area of about 30 feet radius is made sloping towards the tank inlet. (Jhunjhunwala) In the tank rainwater is collected by means of gravity and it the rain falls directly into the tank. To keep the water that is collected cooler, they decorate the tankas with tiles. The water that is collected in the tankas is used for drinking water only for a single family. The water stored in the tank can last for six to nine months. In years when there is less rainfall the tankas can be filled by transporting water from nearby wells and tanks. This means of collecting rain water is used mostly in areas far from ot her water sources. The positive effects of tankas include the women not having to leave the home to obtain water, there is an assured supply of water for domestic use, the construction of a tankas is cheaper than paying for water and having to transport it, and having a tankas can be considered a means of social respect. The main negative effect of tankas is that they take up land that could otherwise be used for agriculture. (Centre for Science and Environment) (Jhunjhunwala) Khadins are water harvesting structure used for agriculture. They are also known as dhora. Their purpose is to catch the surface runoff water. Its main feature is a very long (100-300m) earthen embankment built across the lower hill slopes lying below gravelly uplans. (Centre for Science and Environment) This allows the excess water to drain off and be gathered and used to on the land to assist with crop production. http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Rural/img/Khadins-img.jpg (http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org) Water management all comes down to the techniques used and if they are effective in that specific area and if there an opportunity to apply the technique to other areas or possibly improve upon the technique. Projects and experiments have been used to establish these techniques in irrigation but they have the potential to be used to discover and improve upon techniques to manage rain fall. One example of an improvement made to a technique that is already practiced is the modification of tankas. The modification consists of collecting rain water from the roof and by means of pipes transports it into the tank for storage and later use. This allows the land that would be used to construct the tankas can be used for agricultural use. (Jhunjhunwala) The water tank schemes that were tested by the Sind government were shown to be effective and tanks were implanted in other areas. The water tank is also known as johad and they provide water for both humans and cattle. They are constructed on public land and all of the people in the community have equal right to use the water in the johad, because of the common use of the johad they are often placed in areas not far from the majority of the people. To construct a johad the land has to be level and there must be clay soil so that the rain water will collect in the tank. The johad is made between January and June must be cleaned out every year as well. (Jhunjhunwala) The source of water supply can be categorized into the three main sources. These sources are rainfall, ponds and wells. In some cases there might be lakes of water also available. The rain water is collect in tarias (ponds) which only last about three to nine months. Tarais are short lived because of their size, the amount of rain water received, how fast the water is evaporating and how permeable the layers beneath the water are. The water that is contained in the tarais is fresh and used for domestic purposes of drinking and cattle watering too. Tarais are very common, in fact most villages has a tarai. Tarais also have a positive effect; their significant influence to the top seated aquifers, namely their water seeps slowly down to the ground water reservoir and freshens the brackish or saline in situ water, making it suitable for drinking and other purposes. (Irrigation) Due to this positive effect wells are often dug close to tarais. The wells are created to reach the water supply more effective. They provide almost 95% of the water that is required for an area. Wells that are built too shallow can cause problems through. They can turn brackish after time and this is a waste of money in the construction of shallow wells. (Agrican and Irrigation) The construction of a well consists of a wooden foundation in the bottom of the well in the shape of the wheel. The sides of the well are lined with green branches and brushwood in a wicker work formation. Depending on the localities in the interior of the well, such as wells between 40-100 meters, these well are lined with burnt bricks. (Irrigation) Since there has been no systematic hydrogeological investigation in the Thar Desert, there is no way of knowing if all the aquifers that exist have been discovered and put to use. Aquifers are part of the terrain aspect of obtaining water. Aquifers horizons have been assumed to exist and are grouped into three categories. The shallowest aquifers have a water table depth between a few meters and 20 meters. The medium aquifers have water table depths between 20 meters and 50 meters. The deepest aquifers have water table depths between 50 meters and over 100 meters. It is believed that the deep aquifer is present in the central and eastern parts of the Thar Desert and might be continuous or discontinuous with a mono or multi-layered structure. In most parts of the aquifer the water quality is fresh to slightly brackish but some parts of the aquifer are severely brackish and unfit for use. (Irrigation) Water in the Thar Desert is saris and a valued environmental resource. A great deal of effort has gone into designing developments, testing experiments and implementing projects to increase the water availability in the Thar Desert. The water is used for both domestic use and farming use for cattle and crops. Ideas and projects can always be built upon and improved to increase their effectiveness. Water management techniques can date back to at least the 1920s with the first project title but they occurred long before that time and they will continue to occur to support the Thar peoples way of life.

Fathers Attitude of Love Towards Sinners. Essay -- Religion Religious

Fathers Attitude of Love Towards Sinners The Parable of the Prodigal Son reveals both Gods love for those who are ready to accept it, which in this case is the prodigal son who returns to his father, and his rejection of the self-centered righteousness. Repentance and forgiveness are essential to everyday life. In the book of Luke, the parable of the prodigal son is told. The father in the parable represents God. The prodigal son is symbolic of one who is living in sin, repents, and returns to fellowship with God. The prodigal son decided he had enough under his father and wanted to be on his own. Not only did he want to leave, but he also wanted to take his share of the inheritance that he was not supposed to get until his fathers death. The father granted his sons request. Though he gives a portion of his money to his son, the father still is wealthy. The father was not really concerned about what he gave his son, but concerned with his sons personal safety and return to the family. God does not lose anything by our decis ion to live in rebellion. Humans are the only ones who lose everything. The son left for a far off country and threw away his inheritance with wild living. The sons careless behavior was simply a symptom of the deep desire to be his own master, to live independently, to do as he pleased. The spiritual meaning behind the parable shows mans rebellion against God. God does not oppose ones choice in choosing how to live. We as humans use all that God has granted us not for serving Him in obedience, but against His will. According to the teachings in the Bible, God allows humans the freedom to make decisions in life. Some choices or decisions will lead either to true peace and freedom or to destruction. Many peo... ...o matter how badly one screws up, God is always there waiting to forgive. We as humans need to make the decision to repent and ask for forgiveness with a meek spirit. We all at one point in our lives are the prodigal son. Works Cited 1. Kennedy, X.J., Gioia, Dana. The Parable of the Prodigal Son. Literature: An Introduction to fiction, poetry, and drama. New York: Longman, 2002. 232-33. 2. Kennedy, X.J., Gioia, Dana. Prodigal Son. Literature: An Introduction to fiction, poetry, and drama. New York: Longman, 2002. 1361-66. 3. Jeremias, Joachim. The parable of the Prodigal Son. The Parables of Jesus. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1963. 4. Hunter, Archibald. Prodigal Son. Interpreting the Parables. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1960. 5. Buttrick, George. Luke 15:11-32. The Interpreters Bible. New York: Abingdon=Cokesbury Press, 1952.

Parts of a Newspaper Essay

A .Headline- the words are printed in a large type across the top or a news paper article to catch the reader’s attention B. Dateline- the words at the beginning of a news article that tell when and where the story was written. C. News article- in a news paper, a story about an event that has just taken place. D. Feature Article – a detailed report on a person, an issue, or an event. E. Editor – one of the people who run a newspaper F. Editorial – an article in which the Editors give their opinion on an important issue. G. International – tells you about the news across the continents. H. Business – tells you the things that are happening business-wise. (media and advertising, world business, economy, stock markets, mutual funds, etc. I. Technology – contains things that are going in and out of style in the technology world. J. Science – contains things that are happening in medical world. (e.g. outer space, environment, etc.) K. Health – talks about modern day human health and health problems. I. Sports – talks about games. (ball games, Olympic games, SEA games, etc.) M. Education – contains the trend n the world of education. (students’ Achievement, schools, etc.) N. Weather – contains the weather for the day O. Obituaries – contains people who passed away and their death should be mentioned to the community. P. Classified Ads – contains open jobs and job description plus job requirements. Other parts include: Cover Page Story, Table of Contents, Editors Pool, Entertainment, etc. Commentary is a series of giving explanations and interpretations Guidelines in Writing a Commentary: There is no recipe for doing commentaries. The elements that make up a successful commentary tend to vary and will depend on the nature of the text and on particular approaches to it. Nor is there a single ‘right answer’ to any passage for commentary. A good commentary may well consist of a number of pertinent questions raised by the passage. However, certain tendencies should be avoided: 1. A commentary should not be prà ©cis of the passage. Summary and description are not commentary. 2. A commentary should not dwell on the context of the passage and should in general avoid venturing into other parts of the work from which the extract is taken. IT should likewise avoid excursions into the wider oeuvre of the author 3. It is not necessary to write out quotations from the passage this can waste valuable time. The following points should be considered: 1. A commentary benefits by paying close attention to the use of language. 2. 2. IT is important to pay attention to the means of representation and to address not only the quest of WHAT is said but of HOW it is said. 3. There is no need to ascribe to the text a definitive meaning or structure. It is fine to problematize the text. Critique – is a method of disciplined systematic analysis of a written or oral discourse. Critique is commonly understood as fault finding and negative judgement, but I can also involve merit recognition, and in the philosophical tradition. It also means a methodical practice of doubt. The contemporary sense of critique has been largely influenced by the enlightenment critique of prejudice and authority, which championed the emancipation and autonomy from religion and political authorities. Critique is an accepted format of written or oral debate. Stating a Purpose: * It is important to state your purpose clearly at the beginning of your talk. Here are some ways to do this: * *talk about – to speak about a subject Example: I’d like to talk about our plans for the new site. * *report on – to tell you about what has been dine. * Example: I’ll be reporting on the progress we have made since last meeting. * *take a look at – examine * Example: First, let’s take a loo at what we have achieved so far. * *tell you about – to give someone information or instruction. * Example: Our reporters will tell you about what is happening in Visayas. * *show – to explain something by doing * Example: The object of the orientation is to show you how to put the theory into practice. * Outline – to give the main facts or information * Example: Give me an outline of the new policy. * *Fill you in on – to give extra or missing information * Example: I will fill you in on the details you just missed during the meeting. * *Give an overview of – to give a short description with general information but with no details. * *highlight – draw attention to or emphasize important facts. * *discuss – to talk about ideas or opinions on subject in more detail

Classroom Safety Essays

Classroom Safety Essays Classroom Safety Essay Classroom Safety Essay The first element of classroom safety is intentional design. Using the positioning of your desks, displays, storage and equipment to create a warm and welcoming room for the students lets the parents as well feel that their child is being left in a safe and caring environment. When the students are comfortable with the surroundings, they feel safe and want to be involved with learning. The expectations for behavior should be made clear at the beginning of the year by reviewing these rules with students. Classroom rules must have concrete consequences. Having a regular daily schedule helps you and your kids prepare for upcoming tasks. The children will adjust to the daily routine and behaviors will be kept at a minimum because they know what is expected of them. Children should be involved in safety practices by being assigned roles such as trash monitor, door monitor, or safety patrol team so they can practice being safe and school. These skills will show up at home as well because the child feels that he is important to the smooth working of the classroom. Children who are excited about the things they are learning at school cause parents to want to see what is going on in the classroom. Protective factors are conditions in families and communities that, when present, increase the health and well-being of children and families. These attributes serve as buffers, helping parents to find resources, supports, or coping strategies that allow them to parent effectively, even under stress. Research has shown that the following protective factors are linked to a lower incidence of child abuse and neglect: * Nurturing and attachment Knowledge of parenting and of child and youth development * Parental resilience * Social connections * Concrete supports for parents Amador, C. , Daeschel, I. , Sorte, J. (2011). Nutrition, Health, and Safety for Young Children. Pearson Education Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Seven Key Elements for Effective Classroom Management | eHow. com ehow. com/list_6562940_seven-elements-effective-classroom-management . html#ixzz1aHd0f2yn

Men of the Harlem Renaissance

Men of the Harlem Renaissance The Harlem Renaissance was a literary movement that began in 1917 with the publication of Jean Toomers Cane and ended with Zora Neale Hurstons novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God in 1937. Writers such as Countee Cullen, Arna Bontemps, Sterling Brown, Claude McKay, and Langston Hughes all made significant contributions to the Harlem Renaissance. Through their poetry, essays, fiction writing, and playwriting, these men all exposed various ideas that were important to African-Americans during the Jim Crow Era.   Countee Cullen In 1925, a young poet by the name of Countee Cullen published his first collection of poetry, entitled, Color. Harlem Renaissance  architect Alain Leroy Locke argued that Cullen was â€Å"a genius† and that his poetry collection transcends all of the limiting qualifications that might be brought forward if it were merely a work of talent. Two years earlier, Cullen proclaimed: If I am going to be a poet at all, I am going to be POET and not NEGRO POET. This is what has hindered the development of artists among us. Their one note has been the concern with their race. That is all very well, none of us can get away from it. I cannot at times. You will see it in my verse. The consciousness of this is too poignant at times. I cannot escape it. But what I mean is this: I shall not write of negro subjects for the purpose of propaganda. That is not what a poet is concerned with. Of course, when the emotion rising out of the fact that I am a negro is strong, I express it. During his career, Cullen published poetry collections including Copper Sun, Harlem Wine, the Ballad of the Brown Girl  and Any Human to Another.   He also served as editor of the poetry anthology Caroling Dusk,   which featured the work of other African-American poets.   Sterling Brown Sterling Allen Brown may have worked as an English professor but he was focused on documenting African-American life and culture present in folklore and poetry.  Throughout his career, Brown published literary criticism and anthologized African-American literature. As a poet, Brown has been characterized as having an â€Å"active, imaginative mind† and a â€Å"natural gift for dialogue, description, and narration,† Brown published two collections of poetry and published in various journals such as  Opportunity. Works published during the Harlem Renaissance include Southern Road; Negro Poetry and The Negro in American Fiction, Bronze booklet - no. 6.   Claude McKay   Writer and social activist  James Weldon Johnson  once said: Claude McKays poetry was one of the great forces in bringing about what is often called the Negro Literary Renaissance.† Considered one of the most prolific writers of the Harlem Renaissance,  Claude McKay used themes such as African-American pride, alienation, and desire for assimilation in his works of fiction, poetry, and nonfiction. In 1919, McKay published â€Å"If We Must Die† in response to the Red Summer of 1919. Poems such as â€Å"America† and â€Å"Harlem Shadows† followed.  McKay also published collections of poetry such as Spring in New Hampshire and Harlem Shadows; novels Home to Harlem, Banjo, Gingertown, and Banana Bottom.   Langston Hughes   Langston Hughes was one of the most prominent members of the Harlem Renaissance. His first collection of poetry Weary Blues was published in 1926. In addition to essays and poems, Hughes also was a prolific playwright.  In 1931, Hughes collaborated with writer and anthropologist Zora Neale Hurston to write  Mule Bone. Four years later, Hughes wrote and produced  The Mulatto.  The following year, Hughes worked with composer  William Grant Still  to create  Troubled Island.  That same year, Hughes also published  Little Ham  and  Emperor of Haiti.   Arna Bontemps   Poet Countee Cullen described fellow wordsmith Arna Bontemps as â€Å"at all times cool, calm, and intensely religious yet never takes advantage of the numerous opportunities offered them for rhymed polemics† in the introduction of the anthology Caroling Dusk. Although Bontemps never gained the notoriety of McKay or Cullen, he published poetry, childrens literature and wrote plays throughout the Harlem Renaissance. Also, Bontemps work as an educator and librarian allowed the works of the Harlem Renaissance to be accessible to generations that would follow.

Adidas Value Chain Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Adidas Value Chain Analysis - Research Paper Example The value chain analysis of Adidas strongly borrows from Michael Porter’s perspective in that the company strongly maintains its primary activities since its beginning. For instance, the inbound and outbound logistics are increasingly strongly in the company and this ensures that it operates optimally in the current environment. Adidas Group has certain inbound logistics chain for raw material movement as well as un assembled products inside the organization. Further, the outbound systems logistics for finished products transportation is effective and timely. The main operations, sales, marketing, and related operations are increasingly strong and this has pushed the company to be the main sport industry in the sector. The team of researchers responsible for new and innovative product development and shifting market demands has been increasingly sustainable, and has assisted Adidas to maintain its position in the market and attain competitive advantage. Adidas Group has introd uced electronic sales, and continued to dominate the strategic marketing in e-sales. The company monitors service quality, staff training, and satisfaction of customers through the franchisees as a crucial aspect of value chain. Additionally, the supporting activities of Adidas Group, which includes procurements, research, human resource management and development as well as development of the company’s infrastructure and is well operated to ensure strong reputation of the company, value of the brand and status of market. Adidas mainly emphasize on materials procurement and all other activities related in the cost effective mode, making necessary use of worldwide strategies of off shoring and sourcing. For instance, Adidas Group put more emphasis, effort and resources on product innovation in ensuring competitive advantage in sport industry. Research and development will make the company produce better products and meet the goals and expected customer demands and preferences. Each year, the Adidas Group expands and procures new and innovative techniques to satisfy consumer needs. Similarly, Adidas has expanded some of its activities of manufacturing to nations such as China and Vietnam, considering c osts of labor. Additionally, the Adidas company workers are well treated and always satisfied, (Kaplinsky & University of Sussex. 2000). The organization believes that their workers an increasingly crucial resource for the organization and therefore, has a very string human resource management unit that performs activities such as recruitment, hiring, development, training, discipline, reward and dismissal of personnel. To attain employees’ welfare needs and attain the target in sporting product industry that is entirely depended on employees’ enthusiasm, well-being, and talents, the company boosts employees’ morale. This is done through compensations, medical insurance, and transport allowances. Moreover, Adidas

Outsourcing Jobs to Foreign Countries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Outsourcing Jobs to Foreign Countries - Essay Example Noted scholar and business visionary, James Brian Quinn of Dartmouth College, has described outsourcing "one of the greatest organizational and industry structure moves of the century." (Quinn, 1994) Several largest and most successful organizations OF United States are also the world's top providers of outsourcing services. Organizations like ARAMARK, Delphi, EDS, General Electric, IBM, IKON, Unisys, UPS, Xerox, and many others have millions of human resources in their outsourcing businesses. As management expert Peter Drucker articulates, "If you ask me what is the fastest growing industry in United States- it's outsourcing." (Bahli, 2003, p-214) Far from being bad for businesses or their workers, outsourcing is one of the most important and powerful forces available for building successful organizations, creating economic growth, and generating and enhancing jobs. Outsourcing first came to prominence in the early 1990s at a time when the U. S. economy faced a severe recession and the very competitiveness of its businesses was in question. Organizations used outsourcing then to help streamline their operations and to regain their competitive strength. The result was an unprecedented period of economic growth during the latter half of the 1990s. As one enters the mid-2000s, today's challenges may be even more pressing than those of a decade ago. It's hard to think our jobs are moving to other countries and there is nothing we can do. While outsourcing is a big profit for business owners, American workers and their families are the ones who suffer. The most common definition of outsourcing includes turning over a firm or business operations, network operations, software development and maintenance or other IT functions to a provider for a specified time, or generally a few years; sometimes profit can become a major factor and outsourcing becomes permanent. Outsourcing can be between two or more companies in the United States or it can be between the United States and other countries. Another term we use is off shoring, in the U.S. we use this term to specifically refer to outsourcing to other country (Ramanugan and Sandhya, 2003). These terms are used interchangeably and continue to be throughout this research study. Companies in America offshore outsourcing to many countries such as: China India Korea Mexico Philippines Malaysia Russia According to Ramanujan and Sandhya (2006, p.2) "China and India are the two major recipients of outsource work and these countries turn out millions of high-end, college-educated workers, who are well motivated and who make much lower salaries for doing those jobs than their counterparts in the west". So can you "imagine" these people have all the right tools to take our jobs and keep them; not saying we don't need our jobs but Americans just cannot accept any salary, the cost of living is too high. They also states "if you are a secretary or file clerk, if you work in the mail room, or as a middle manager, bank teller, librarian, if you are in any sectors of the retail or whole sale, chances are your jobs will not be here five years from now". What is driving the IT and other jobs offshore Well the labor cost is the primary

System Software and Network Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

System Software and Network Security - Essay Example The cloud computing has been surrounded by much hype as well as marketing strategies of how the IT infrastructure will eventually be placed in the â€Å"Cloud† if one needs to keep at pace with the technological advances. It’s widely acceptable that there is a wide array of benefits accruing from cloud computing. This includes fast deployment, scalability, business agility, and lower costs (Hurwitz, 2009). Despite these accruing benefits, there is a great danger to a cloud customer. With new providers emerging each day offering the cloud based services, this makes it very difficult for future cloud adopters to undertake due diligence and proper evaluation of the options. Whenever the company decides on the type of cloud (public, private, hybrid) (Furht, 2010) as well as the cloud service(IaaS, PaaS, SaaS) which best suits its specific infrastructure and the business needs, the next major task should be to choose the one specific vendor who is able to provide the above s ervices putting into consideration both cost and performance. At the moment there are no universal standards with which a user can use to evaluate the different cloud service providers which make the entire process quite challenging. Nevertheless there are a few guidelines that a company should put in place before deciding on the best cloud service provider. Most common reasons why companies are being drawn to this type of cloud service is that it offers good choice for companies having complex applications running on the company-owned hardware infrastructure. The companies’ further benefit by avoiding the upfront capital hardware investments since this... The paper tells that most common reasons why companies are being drawn to this type of cloud service is that it offers good choice for companies having complex applications running on the company-owned hardware infrastructure. The companies’ further benefit by avoiding the upfront capital hardware investments since this particular model is based on the pay-per-use model. Before transferring parts or the entire IT infrastructure to the cloud, companies need to state down the specific service requirements the company needs in terms of support, security, monitoring. Required Storage Space: You need to put into consideration the space you require while you are marketing for a cloud storage provider. This helps you calculate the true cost per GB and this will assist in choosing the best provider as well as the best plan that actually fits your business needs at the most affordable price. If the storage space is a limited one, there are a number of free cloud storage services availa ble and can offer anywhere between 1GB to 500GBs. Pricing: this is always another important consideration. Care should be taken when choosing not only the actual price but also the best pricing model. One need to check if the provider offers the pay as you go plans or the fixed price plans. Compatibility: this is also an important factor to consider. You need to establish the number as well as the various types of platforms that the various providers support. This is very important especially if you will be accessing your files using a variety of different devices and platforms.

Societal Impacts on Natural Disasters Essay Example for Free

Societal Impacts on Natural Disasters Essay Natural disasters are a devastating, but undeniably inevitable part of life and society. Because of this fact, many of us tend to believe that they happen as an act of nature, purely out of the human control. We need to start realizing that this is far from the truth and it this attitude that is stopping us from learning from our mistakes. The contemporary world inaccurately labels various disasters as ‘natural’ when in fact, when looked at more closely; there is an enormous correlation between ‘nature’ and ‘society’. There are many flaws in the human preparation for natural disasters that have equated in death and injury where it could have been minimized. Although the occurrence of a disaster can happen at any time, it is vital that we start recognizing that there is much that we can do reduce the effects that they have on us as well as taking ownership to the fact that there have been many changes that we have made to the environment in the past and present to aggravate ‘natural’ disasters and allow them to impact on us with much more severity then they would of otherwise. A natural disaster can be defined as a phenomenon that results in material and/or environmental loss where the affected community would not be able to restore themselves without external support (The Australian Government Department of Transport and Regional Services, 2002). The 2011 TÃ… hoku earthquake and tsunami that affected Japan and the Indian Ocean earthquake affecting Southern Asia are both primary examples of natural disasters. Although these two events were completely unrelated to each-other, the economic and environmental impact that they had on their effected regions were very much similar. These included widespread death and injuries, building and infrastructure losses, major economic downfall and socio-economic loss. The Tohoku earthquake and tsunami struck the coast of Japan at 14:46 local time on 11th of March, 2011. It was a magnitude 9.0 on the Richter scale (Shibahara, 2011), making it one of the most powerful earthquakes the world has ever seen. It lasted a total of 8 minutes and the violent earthquake later triggered a tsunami, which travelled up to 10 kilometres inland into the Sendai area (Norio, 2011). The short-term effects of the earthquake and tsunami included: death and injuries, destruction of property and  infrastructure including roads and all forms of transport systems, financial and economic downfall due to rebuilding, clean-up projects, and the falling of stocks. The event occurred where the pacific plates dip underneath the plate beneath northern Honshu. This is known as convergent boundaries; where one tectonic plate moves under the other, sinking into the Earth’s mantle as the plates meet. Where more traditional earthquakes are caused by friction of two plates moving in opposite directions, in this instant The Pacific Plate moved underneath Honshu’s plate, releasing large amounts of energy (N.A, 2005). The break caused the sea floor to rise by several metres. This underwater megathrust earthquake is the most rare and destructive type, hence producing the massive Richter scale reading. The tsunami that followed the earthquake was triggered by the destructive waves up of to 77 feet and engulfed the coast of Japan minutes after the quake. Some of the more powerful waves travelled up to 6 miles inland, causing damage that almost match that of the earthquake, even though limited to the coastal region. In addition to these events, the disasters also caused major disruption to the nearby nuclear power plants that put Japan in a the midst of a humanitarian crisis unseen in the history of modern Japan (Duan, 2012). Japan often experience’s natural disasters due to their geological placement and hence have developed earthquake and disaster procedures that are one of the most advanced in the world (Sheth Sanyai Jaiswai Gandhi, 2008). However, the series of disasters were simply too high in magnitude for Japan to be prepared for. The earthquake was above what they had predicted and the tsunami had not been factored in. Despite the unprecedented scale of the earthquake alone, many buildings infrastructures remained standing, proving Japan’s construction law’s, resilience and earthquake technology. This shows that if the earthquake was the only disaster that Japan had to deal with, they would have been able to cope with it far more successfully and the tsunami was the reason for the country’s failure (Zare Afrouz, 2012). They were left in a situation where they were facing several difficulties: The application of a response, the management of a large number of residents  that had been displaced by the disaster, and lack of experience in the management of medical resources for displaced populations. In addition to this, the people of Tohoku were only notified of the event one minute before the occurrance, leaving residents in a state of shock and unpreparedness (Norio, 2011). However, despite the devastating elements that the Japanese people were exposed to, they still managed to remain somewhat calm and dealt with the situation at hand with discipline. The public had confidence in officials that were part of relief teams and lined up in a civilized manner for food and drink, as opposed to demonstrating chaotic behavior, which would be very common in similar situations, especially in rural or developing countries. This would be a prime example of successfully educating the public on crisis behavior, especially in regions that are prone to disaster. The 2004 Tsunami, or otherwise known as the 2004 Indiana Ocean tsunami and earthquake is considered as the 6th deadliest earthquake/tsunami and the 2nd most destructive earthquake in the world (Wang Liu, 2008). During the quakes strongest point, it lasted a total of 8-10 minutes and caused a lasting rise in the global sea level of 0.1mm. Its destructive power also resulted in the inactive volcano situated in Indonesia to become active once again. The disaster affected a total of 15 countries, including: Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Somalia, Malaysia, South Africa, Madagascar and Kenya; with Indonesia suffering the most damage. The disaster measured 9.0 on the Richter scale, the same reading as the Tohoku event, this reading was measured in Sumatra, Indonesia and buildings were shaking in Bangkok as well as Singapore which were both more than 600 miles away. Similar to the Tokohu earthquake, the cause of the Indiana Ocean earthquake/ tsunami was also due to the sliding of tectonic plates, in this case the India plate underneath the Burma plate. Even though the process has been on-going for many years, it was the 26th of December 2004 when the process resulted in a rupture more then 1000 kilometers long and shifting the ground above the rupture by approximately 10 meters horizontally and a number of meters vertically. This event caused the entire planet to shake and witness  the largest magnitude earthquake in 40 years. Primary effects of the tsunami include major loss of life: 227000 people confirmed dead and 1.8 million people missing. More than 80000 houses were damaged or had been destroyed as well as overall severe damage to all infrastructure, roads, bridges and all utilities Secondary effects included the spread of disease due to contaminated water and the tropical climate (Wang Liu,2008). Another was major economic downfall due to the loss of coastal fishing industries as well as loss of tourism opportunity due to damage to areas such as Thailand. Emotional and psychological effects on those affected was also a significant factor, as well as the huge number of orphans that were left due to surviving the incident and their parents not being so lucky. The affected countries were entirely unprepared for the disaster (Athukorala, 2012). However, The Pacific Tsunami Monitoring Centre (PTMC) in Honolulu, Hawaii sent a message stating there was a possibility of a tsunami affecting countries in the Indian Ocean 65 minutes prior to the event. Unfortunately, this message was not passed onto the countries in the affected region, as the PTMC officials did not have required contacts in their address book. Furthermore, are a very rare incidence in the Indian Ocean and historically tsunami-related calamities had been of minor importance compared to other natural disasters (Abbott, 2011, Ch. 3; Albala-Bertrand 1993, Ch. 2, From Athukorala, 2012 ). It was also reported that â€Å" in many coastal towns and tourists resorts in Sri Lanka, Aceh, India and Thailand, many people watched the prior receding of the coastline with curiosity or took the opportunity to collect stranded fish and thus easily succumbed to the waves (Athukorala, 2012). † There is now research that shows a close correlation between the magnitude of the damage caused by the tsunami and the regions unpreparedness and lack of coastal resource management. Evidence shows that the shocking death toll could have been significantly bought down if the region had had more effective natural defenses such as coral forests and mangrove swamps, all of which had been destroyed for urban construction such as ocean facing hotels  and villas. By doing so, involved parties have not only broken coastal conservation legislation, but now live with the most serious consequence, loss of life. There is evidence that the amount of human lives lost was partly a result of modern progress, ruthless destruction of natural defenses such as coral forests and mangrove swamps, and building oceanfront hotels and villas in violation of coastal conservation legislation. For instance, in the areas surrounding Aceh, where the coastal ecosystem remained in good condition the tsunami’s effects were far less severe. Also, the island of Simeuleu in Indonesia experienced a relatively death toll, partially due to the healthy condition of the surrounding mangrove forests. Furthermore, in Sri Lanka the damage was much more brutal as there had been violation of regulation prohibiting mining coral reefs and damaging coastal mangrove forests, which act as a shield against the destruction of the sea (Athukorala, 2012). Both these events should act as a alarm for leaders all over the world, to revise their methods and procedure for disaster detection and response procedures. It could be an alarm for us to be more thorough and cautious about the earthquake hazard as the prepared and industrialized Japan with the most modernized technology confronted many extensive troubles, which were out of their predictions. We need to analyse the two events and see the connection between ‘nature’ and ‘society’ and understand that the two are interlinked. Although the occurrence of a natural disaster is out of our control, we are able to make a difference in the brutality of its effects by the choices we make to our surrounding environment, as proven by the regions that were fortunate to shield themselves from the wrath of the tsunami with their mangrove swamps and natural defense systems. Although the economic state of any region is a important factor in a range of decisions, officials need to also consider the environment as a major factor in their decision making when it comes to urban development; as without it, we have nothing.

Lung Cancer: History, Causes, Types and Treatments

Lung Cancer: History, Causes, Types and Treatments Lung Cancer Introduction Lung cancer is a kind of cancer that begins in the lungs. Lungs are the spongy organs in the chest that are responsible for taking in oxygen when one inhales and releases carbon-dioxide when one exhales. Lung cancer is the principal causation of cancer related deaths in the United States, amongst both women n and men. It claims more lives annually than does breasts, ovarian, prostate and colon cancers, all combined. People that smoke have the highest chances of suffering this ailment. The risk of this form of cancer increases with the number of cigarettes one smokes and the duration that one smokes. Lung cancer causes the demise of more than one million people worldwide in a single year. It is projected that roughly 90% of deaths caused by lung cancer in men and 75-80% overall deaths in the United States are owed to smoking. Vividly, lung cancer is a prevalent and imperative disease that constitutes a major health problem in the world. History In the past 150 years, lung cancer was non-existent. In the year 1878, only 1% represented the malignant lung cancers that were seen by the pathology institute of university of Dresden, Germany. By the year 1918, the percentage of cancer had risen to about 10% and by the year 1927 it had risen to more than 14%. It was noted in 1930 that t the turn of the new century the malignant tumors had begun to increase and may be even more by the end of World War I. It was noted that whilst most of the lung tumors happened to men, there seemed to be a rise of the tumors in women as well. The period of the disease from the time it was known to the time of death was usually between a year and two years at most. In all these cases of the patients diagnosed with the lung tumors, there had been a prolonged history of chronic bronchitis. The increase of lung cancer was said to have been on the rise due to several probable etiological factors: increase in air pollution by dust and gasses that were emitted by the industries; being exposed to gases in World War I; increased automobile traffic; and working with gasoline or benzene. Nevertheless, lung cancer cases rose at an equally alarming rate in the countries that had few automobiles, less industries and workers not exposed to gasoline and benzene. In several instances, smoking was mentioned as a possibility that caused lung cancer, but many investigations failed to confirm a link between lung cancer and smoking. There were however suspicions that smoking did actually contribute to the illness. However, in the year 1929, Fritz Linckint, a German physician, researched and published the findings that the lung cancer patients were most likely to be smokers. This led to his campaigns against smoking which led to the spread of anti-tobacco activism in Germany. The link amid lung cancer and smoking of cigarettes began to be prominent in the 1930s due to the suspicions of clinicians owed to the increase in the disease. After two decades, smoking was declared an agent that caused lung cancer. In the 1940s in Germany, lung cancer was the second frequent cause of cancer death after stomach cancer. Research by The German Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research postulated that amongst 109 lung cancer patients, only three were not smokers. It however took a very long time for the truth to sink in that there was a causative link between lung cancer and smoking. Most of the smokers as well as the physicians, who enjoyed cigarettes refused to trust that their habit was harmful to their health. In the 1500s two regions in Czechoslovakia and Germany, Joachimsthal and Schneeberg were productive mines that yielded arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, nickel and silver. The miners in these ores developed some deadly disease that the locals termed at â€Å"the mountain disease† that was labeled an occupational disease for the miners. Most thought that arsenic was the root cause of this lung cancer but it was later proven that it was the emissions of radium that was the cause. Lung Cancer Risks and Causes To a large extent, the biggest cause of lung cancer is smoking. Smoking causes over 8 out of ten lung cancer cases including a tiny fraction caused due to being exposed to second hand smoke for the non-smokers (passive smoking). The more an individual smokes, the higher the chances of getting lung cancer though the length of time that one stays a smoker is even more crucial than the number of cigarettes one takes a day. It is more harmful to start smoking at a a young tender age than starting as an adult. When one stops smoking it reduces the risks they have of contacting lung cancer as compared to continuing to smoke. The sooner one quits, the better their health. Passive smoking, breathing in other persons’ smoke from cigarettes, increases the possibility of lung cancer though it is much less if one smokes themselves. Cigarette smoking is therefore the major basis of lung cancer. Cigar and pipe smokers also have an increased chance of getting lung cancer as compared to those who do not smoke. They are also very likely to get cancer of the lip or mouth. In the past lung cancer was common with men than women, but nowadays since more women are smoking, it is also as common amongst women. Other risk factors that are known to cause lung cancer include: the exposure to radon gases and certain chemicals, air pollution, a previous lung disease, a family history of lung cancer, lowered immunity, previously smoking related cancers, and a past treatment of cancer. Radon gas is a natural radioactive gas that originates from the tiny deposits of uranium found in all soils and rocks. Radon gas is the second biggest cause of lung cancer after smoking. Exposure to radon gas increases the risk of getting lung cancer for the smokers. It is therefore advisable for the people living in areas prone to this gas to stop smoking since their chances of getting lung cancer are very high. Certain chemicals have been known to cause lung cancer: diesel exhaust, silica and asbestos. Contact with Asbestos was common in the 1960s in the shipbuilding and construction industries. Asbestos is still a lung cancer cause since the cancers take a pretty long time to develop. Smokers are at a higher risk of contacting lung cancer when exposed to asbestos. Silica is also a chemical that is used in glass making and is harmful to the human body since it causes a condition called silicosis. A person suffering from this illness has a very high chance of getting lung cancer, and once again, smokers are more at risk as compared to non-smokers. Air pollution has also been known to cause lung cancer. It however depends on the level of air pollution one exposes themselves to. People who have had previous diseases in the lungs have an increased rate of getting lung cancer. Adenocarcinoma of the lung is a form of lung cancer that occurs after one has had a disease in the past that caused a scar in the lungs. Tuberculosis is one such disease that can leave a scar in the lung. People who have suffered from tuberculosis have a double risk of getting lung cancer. The risk continues for over 20 years of the disease. Chlamydia pneumoniae is a kind of a bacterium known to cause chest infections. The people with the antibodies to Chlamydia pneumonia have an increased chance of getting lung cancer. The risk is even greater for the smokers. Family history of lung cancer could also be another risk factor to lung cancer. If a person has a first degree relative with the disease, their risk of lung cancer will be increased by 50%. This risk is however higher if a sister or brother has lung cancer, than the parent. This risk is not dependent on whether an individual smokes or not. Families with smokers could be exposed to smoke from cigarettes and therefore increase the chances of contacting lung cancer whether they have inherited a defective gene or not. Research has it that there is a likelihood that at least a single faulty gene could increase the risk of lung cancer and can be passed down in the family, inherited. There is evidence that particular treatments of cancer could increase the risks of lung cancer. An assessment into the cure for breast cancer shows that the ways of administering radiotherapy have in the past increased the risk of developing lung cancer. Oestrogen receptor negative patients suffering from breast cancer have a high risk of getting lung cancer. Other people who may also have increased chances of getting lung cancer are those that have been treated for a type of cancer of the womb, testicular cancer, and Hodgkin lymphoma. Just like in the past causes of cancer discussed above, the chances of getting lung cancer are more increased for the smokers. Persons who have had neck, head cancer, cervical cancer and oesophagal cancer have a high risk of lung cancer. This could be explained by the reason that all the mentioned cancers are common for smokers, though it could also be due to radiotherapy curative procedures. The drugs that people take after they have had organ transplants and the people with HIV/AIDS both have low immunity. People with HIV or AIDS therefore have a risk of lung cancer that is 3 times more than those that do not have the disease. People who use drugs that suppress immunity after they have had an organ transplant have a double the normal risk of lung cancer. People with autoimmune conditions such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis also have an increased chance of getting lung cancer. Signs and Symptoms of Lung Cancer Lung cancer may not produce any conspicuous symptoms during the early stages. In about 40% of persons diagnosed with lung cancer, diagnosis is normally made after the disease has already advanced. In most of the patients, the cancer advances to stage three for it to be detected. There are however some lung cancer symptoms that one ought to watch out for and seek medical attention early in advance. A new cough that lingers is one sign of lung cancer; since a cough related to a respiratory infection or cold should disappear within one to two weeks. One should not label a lingering cough as â€Å"just a cough† whether it is mucus producing or dry. It is therefore advisable to see a doctor immediately for testing. Changes in the cough is also trivial to note more so for the smokers. These changes include the cough having a hoarse and deeper sound, coughing up more mucus than normal or blood and coughing more often than is usual. Becoming easily breathless or experiencing shortness of breath are some probable indicators of lung cancer. This symptom could probably occur when the lung cancer narrows or blocks the airway, or when fluid from the lung tumor accumulates in the chest. This symptom should not be ignored for tiredness or dismissed for whatever reason. The presence of lung cancer can produce pain the back, shoulder and chest areas. The aching feeling could however not be accompanied by coughing. The chest pain caused by lung cancer is owed to a discomfort that is as a result of metastasis or the enlargement of lymph nodes to the ribs, pleura (lining in the lung region) or the chest wall. Wheezing is another symptom of lung cancer. The whistling or wheezing sound is produced by the lungs when one breaths, since the airways become inflamed, blocked and constricted by the occurrence of the tumor. Since wheezing is associated with treatable and benign causes, one should have it checked and not assume it since it could be a probable cause of lung cancer. The voice changes when one has lung cancer and becomes raspier, hoarse and deeper. Hoarseness in normal circumstances could be as a result of a simple cold, but when it persists to more than two weeks; it ought to be checked out. The hoarseness that is related to lung cancer occurs when a tumor tampers with the nerves that are responsible for controlling the voice box or larynx. A weight loss that cannot be explained of approximately 10 pounds or more may be linked to lung cancer or a different type of lung cancer. When there is a cancer in the body, ones weight drops as a result of the cancer cells using the energy in the body. It also tampers with the normal way in which the body uses energy acquired from food. Lung cancer could spread to the bones producing pain in the body and more so in the back. The pain is worse at night when the patient rests on their back. Lung cancer is also linked to pain in the neck, arm and shoulder. Headaches could be a sign that the lung cancer has spread to the brain. The headaches could also be triggered by pressure by the lung tumor on the superior vena cava (the large vein responsible for moving blood to the heart from the upper body). Prevention of Lung Cancer Several factors may help in the protection of lung cancer: diet, physical activity, aspirin and having multiple sclerosis. Vegetables and fresh fruits may help in the prevention of lung cancer since they contain chemicals that can prevent damage to cells. The antioxidant vitamins E, C and A, are also thought to help in the reduction of lung cancer. New evidence postulates that flavonoids in many vegetables and fruits help reduce the risk of lung cancer. Research is however ongoing to find out which exact nutrients in vegetables and fruits are of utmost help. Beta cryptoxanthin, found in fruits like mangoes and oranges may lower risk of lung cancer. Changing diet alone cannot reduce the risk of lung cancer much when one carries on smoking. The most vital thing is to quit smoking. Studies have shown that high levels of physical activity can lower the risk of lung cancer. This includes the activities at home, work and leisure activities such as golf and walking. Some research has it that taking aspirin may reduce the risk of lung cancer but other studies have not. Other studies postulate that aspirin intake may only reduce the risk in men or for people taking 7 tablets within a week. It is however not advisable to take aspirin on regular basis without the doctor’s instructions since it may cause bleeding or damage the stomach lining. People with multiple sclerosis, according to some research, have a low lung cancer risk. Types of Lung Cancer There are two main lung cancer types: Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer. The staging of lung cancer depends on whether the cancer has spread from lungs to lymph nodes or other organs, or whether the cancer is local. Since the lungs are very large, tumors can grow for a long duration before they are found. Symptoms such as fatigue and coughing may occur but people will always dismiss them thinking they are caused by other causes. Due to this reason, the early stages of lung cancer (stages I and II) are difficult to detect. Most people suffering from cancer are diagnosed at stages III and IV. Treatment Options for Lung Cancer There are four varied ways on how to treat lung cancer: targeted therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery. The options for treatment and recommendations highly depend on a number of factors such as the patient’s overall health and preferences, the possible side effects and the stage and type of lung cancer. The care plan also includes treatment for the symptoms and the side effects. Surgery A thoracic surgeon is mainly trained to perform lung cancer surgery. The aim of surgery in cancer treatment is to completely remove the lung tumor and the close by lymph nodes in the chest area. The tumor should be removed with a surrounding margin or border of normal lung tissue. Several types of surgery may possibly be used for lung cancer: Pneumonectomy, segmentectomy, a wedge, lobectomy, radiofrequency ablation and adjuvant therapy. Adjuvant therapy is the cure given after surgery to lessen the lung cancer risk returning. It involves chemotherapy, targeted therapy and radiation therapy. The intention behind adjuvant therapy is to rid the body of any cancer cells that may still be in the body after the surgery. Radiation therapy This is the application of high energy x-rays and other particles to destroy cells of cancer. A radiation oncologist gives radiation therapy to cancer patients. External-beam radiation therapy is the most regularly used form of radiation therapy used that is given by use of a machine that is outside the body. Brachytherapy, radiation treatment using implants, in not used for lung cancer. Lung cancer patients who undergo radiation therapy experience loss of appetite and fatigue. If therapy is administered in the center of the chest or neck, patients may have difficulty swallowing or experience a sore throat. Chemotherapy This is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells through stopping the cancer cells growth and division. Chemotherapy has been proven to improve the quality and length of life for the lung cancer patients in all stages. Common ways of administering chemotherapy is through placing an intravenous (IV) tube that is placed in the vein by use of needle or a capsule or pill administered orally. Chemotherapy side effects depend on the dose used and individual. They include hair loss, diarrhea, appetite loss, vomiting, nausea, fatigue and risk of infection. The side effects normally go away when the treatment is finished. Targeted therapy This form of treatment blocks the spread and growth of cancer cells whilst limiting harm to healthy cells. For lung cancer, the types of targeted therapy administered include anti-angiogenesis therapy. Conclusion It is not always possible to recover fully from cancer. When the treatment does not succeed, the disease is called terminal or advanced cancer. Diagnosis is very stressful for many patients to discuss. It is however crucial to have an honest and open discussion with the healthcare team or doctor to express concerns, preferences and feelings. Patients with advanced cancer and expected to live for less than six months should consider palliative care known as hospice. Hospice care is intended to provide the possible best quality life for people near the end of life. Arius and Athanasius | Analysis Arius and Athanasius | Analysis SYPNOSIS Arius and Athanasius were archrivals of the Arian controversy. Arius was the leading father in Arianism whilst Athanasius was the defender of the Nicene Theology for orthodox Christianity against Arianism. As Arianism rejects the divinity of Christ, salvation to mankind was at stake. Athanasius advocates the consubstantiality of the three persons of the trinity which was crucial argument to defend the divinity of Christ. Consequently Athanasius had built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine which together with the humanity of Christ represents the complete Trinitarian theology. I. INTRODUCTION The fourth century church experienced a major crisis in understanding Gods divine nature, characteristics and relationship with members of the Godhead. This Arian controversy centred upon two archrival theologians, Arius and Athanasius.1 The controversy represented a new phase of doctrinal development of the Godhead and led to the Council of Nicaea in 325 and the Churchs first ecumenical statement of the Trinity. 2 Athanasius was the champion of Nicene Theology, who greatly defended the traditional Christianity against the Arian heresy.3 Section II of this essay will briefly discuss the background of Arius, and summarize his basic theology. Section III will provide an overview about Athanasiuss life, Athanasius theology in conjunction with his defence against the Arians heretic claims. Finally, the conclusion will be drawn in Section IV. II. THE ARIAN CONTROVERSY The ‘Arian controversy ignited in 318, when Arius openly taught his heretic teachings that denied the full divinity of the Son. Consequently, Arius challenged his bishop (Alexander of Alexandria) and teachers of Alexandria to an Christological conflict.4 The controversy lasted for nearly half a century and became the confrontation between the two archrivals, the ‘Nicene party and Origenists.5 Athanasius coined the names ‘Arian and ‘Arians as pejorative political and theological slurs against Arius and his opponents, who disagreed with him on the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, and those meant the Son as a creature or held fast to Arius basic position. Cf. Thomas G. Weinandy, Athanasius: a Theological Introduction (Hampshire, England: Ashgate Publishing, 2007), 51-52. Donald K. McKim, Theological Turning Points: Major Issues in Christian Thought (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1988), 14. Justo L. Gonzà ¡lez, The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of The Reformation (3 vols., New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1984, Vol. 1), 173. Johannes Quasten, Pathology: The Golden Age of Greek Patristic Literature. From the Council of Nicaea to the council of Chalcedon (Utrecht, Netherlands: Spectrum Publishers, 1963, Vol. III), 66. Bruce L. Shelly, Church History in Plain Language (2nd Ed., Dallas, Texas: Word Publishing, 1995), 100. Everett Ferguson (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Early Christianity (New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1990), 8485, 92. The controversy roots lay deep in â€Å"the differences of the ante-Nicene doctrine of the Logos, especially in the two contradictory half truths of Origens Christology, which was claimed by both archrivals ― the full divinity of Christ and his eternal distinctness from the Father.6 Conclusively, the Arians were the catalysts, rather than the main participants.7 II.1. ARIUS AND HIS DOCTRINE Trained in the Lucian School, Arius was called one of the heretical fathers of Arianism.8 Arianism was a heretical doctrine of theological rationalism, based on the teachings of Lucian of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, and Neoplatonic theory of subordinationism.9 Arius wrote very little and only a few fragments survived. Thalia was his only own writing which Athanasius recited.10 Most information about Arius life and his doctrine came from Athanasius writings.11 Influenced by Origen, Arius rejected the term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) and insisted the concrete and distinct three persons (Ï€ÏÆ'Ï„Î ±ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹Ãâ€š) of the Godhead, a separate essence and the subordination of the Son to Father.12 Nicene split the church into two major groups: 1) The ‘Nicene party― consisted of the West, the school of Antioch and other in the East like Athanasius. They affirmed the full deity of Jesus Christ, but were less clear on the eternal threeness of the Godhead. They did not deny the distinction between Father, Son and Holy Spirit (i.e. they were not Monarchians), but they did not state it as forcefully as the Origenists wanted and so appeared to them to be Monarchian. (2) The Origenists ― were strong on the threeness of the Godhead, but less clear on the deity of Jesus Christ. They were not Arians (i.e. they did not see Jesus Christ as a creature made out of nothing), but they held him to be inferior t o the Father and so appeared Arian to the Nicene party. Cf. Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought (Rev. ed., London: TT Clark, 2006), 30. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology (3rd ed.; Toronto, New York London: Funk Wagnalls Company, 1894, Vol. 1) 134137. Cf. http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010). Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, 30-31. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 134-137. Cf. http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7. Ephiphanius, Panarion 69,4. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,4. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 15. Note: Scholars still debate over the ideological forerunner of Arius doctrine, whether it was derived from the theories of Origen, or of Paul of Samosata, or of Lucian of Antioch. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 6-8. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, I.5,6; Athanasius, De Synodis, 15. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381 (Edinburgh: T T Clark Ltd., 1988), 11. And a few sources from the church historians of the fourth and fifth centuries, and from the letters of St. Basil and of Epiphanius of Salamis. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10-13. Philip Schaff, ‘Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 134-137. John Behr, The Way to Nicaea: The Formation of Christian Theology (3 vols.; Crestwood, New York: St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 2001, Vol. 1), 200-201. Arius denied all internal divine relations existing between the Father and the Son ― the eternal deity of Christ and his equality with the Father (ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ±).13 II.2. A SUMMARY OF ARIUS THEOLOGY Arius basic doctrine:14 (1) Godhead is uncreated, unbegotten (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š), without beginning;15 (2) The Son of God cannot be truly God. The Son is the first of Gods creatures, a secondary God, â€Å"god by participation.† Like the other creations, â€Å"the Son is not unbegotten (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š),† â€Å"he is one of the things fashioned and made,† 16 brought out ex nihilo (ÃŽ ¾ ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ º ÃŽ ½Ãâ€žÃâ€°ÃŽ ½). â€Å"There was a time when the Son of God was not (ÃŽ ½ Ï„Î µ ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ º ÃŽ ½).†17 â€Å"Neither does the Son indeed know his own substance as it is,† â€Å"he was created for our sake, rather than we for his.† â€Å"He is the Son of God not in the metaphysical, but in the moral sense of the word.†18 By the will of God, the Son has his statute and character (á ¼ ¥ÃŽ »ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ºÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š ÃŽ ºÃŽ ±Ã¡ ¼ ° ÏÆ'ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š).† â€Å"The Son is by his nature; changeable, mutable, equally with other rational beings.† The Father is ineffable to the Son; for neither does the Word (Logos) perfectly and accurately know the Father, neither can he perfectly see Him (the Father).†19 (3) â€Å"The title of God is improper for the Son of God, since the only true God adopted him as Son in prevision of his merits.† This sonship by adoption insists â€Å"no real participation in the divinity and no true likeness to it;† Thus, the absolute and eternal divinity of Christ 13 Epiphanius, Panarion 69.6.1ff. Theodoret of Cyrus, Haereticarum fabularum compendium (History of Heresies) I.5. Cf. Philip Schaff, ‘Arius in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology,139. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7-8. 14 Epiphanius, Panarion 69,6. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,5,1-4. Athanasius, De Synodis 15. Socrates, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,6. Gelasius of Cyzicus, Historia conc. Nic. 2,3. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8, 14, 15-16.Cf. Athanasius, Epistula encyclical ad episcopos Aegypti et Libyae, 12. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters (Philip Schaff ed.; Grand Rapids, Mi: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1892), 229. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_229.html (25 April 2011). 15 Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1.4.1. See also the conclusion in Arius first Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10. 16 Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16. 17 See the Arius conclusion in his first Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Athanius, De Synodis, II.26. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 8. 18 Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 12. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. 19 Italic words are mine. Athanasius, De Synodis 15. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 7. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 15. 3 is to be denied.20 (4) The Logos is created by God as the instrument of creation. The Logos holds a middle place between God and the world is made flesh by the will of the Father and fulfilled in Jesus Christ the function of a soul, â€Å"though divine, was less than fully divine.† 21 (5) The Holy Spirit is the first creature of the Logos, and is still less God than the Word. III. ATHANASIUS AND HIS THEOLOGY Though Athanasius was not a systematic theologian, his greatest dedication in life was the fierce defence of orthodox Christianity against the Arian heresy. 22 He was so identified with the cause that the successive history of the Arian controversy is best told by following Athanasius life.†23 The three discourses of Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, were his main dogmatic writings targeted against Arianism.24 The first discourse contained the definition of the Nicene Council ― there is a unity of divine essence between the Father and the Son, and the Son is eternal, increated (ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ·Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š) and unchangeable.25 III.1. ATHANASIUS Athanasius, De Synodis, 15. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Cf. the following citation: â€Å"The leaders in the Arian movement (Arius himself, Eusebius of Nicomedia, Maris and Theognis) received their training under Lucian and always venerated him as their master and the founder of their system. Later critics of Lucian, including Alexander of Alexandria, during the Council of Nicaea in 325, associated his school with Ariuss rejection of the absolute divinity of Christ. No one before Lucian of Antioch and Arius had taught that the Logos is categorically different from God.† of ‘Lucian of Antioch in New Word Encyclopedia. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Lucian_of_Antioch (10 April 2011). Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 100-101. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67-68. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. Justo L. Gonzà ¡lez, The Story of Christianity, 166. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26. The systematic and reliable ancient account of Athanasius could be found in the framework, such as Historia acephala and Festal Index.26 Ordained as deacon to his bishop Alexander in Alexandria, Athanasius accompanied Alexander to the Council at Nicaea (325). Later he succeeded Alexander and became the bishop of Alexandria (328-373).27 Athanasius, as a leading Christian writer of NeoAlexandrine School, adopted the historic-grammatical interpretation of Scripture (which the School of Antioch advocated) in all polemical and theological controversy with the Arians.28 The Arians enlisted the support of secular power and corrupt church authority to silence and destroy Athanasius. When Athanasius refused Constantines order to readmit Arius to communion, his opponents launched all kind of allegations, causing calumnies further to increase.29 For instance, under the influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia, the bishops of the Tyrian Synod condemned Athanasius with charges which he could not escape. They exiled Athanasius to Trier and restored Arius to church communion and reinstate him into the rank of the clergy.30 The history about Athanasius life is also found in his own writings and the Syriac introduction to his Festal Letters, also in Historia acephala or called Historia Athanasii, Gregory Nazianzens Oration 21, and some fragments of a Coptic eulogy. Cf. Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (2nd Printing 1994; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 5. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘Athanasius in Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Mainentry=t100.e116 (18 March 2011). Cf. David Hugh Farmer, ‘Athanasius in The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2003). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20. Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 1. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20-21. Athanasius was firstly charged with murder (sorcery and murder of Arsenius, a Meletian bishop in the Thebaid). His second charge was a political kind (he had threatened to stop the Alexandrian corn-ships).His third charge was his order to assault the presbyter Ischyras. Cf. ‘St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/athanasius (18 March 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 9. Archibald Robertson, Select Writings and Letters of Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria: Edited, with Prolegomena, Indices, and Titles (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Cushing-Malloy Inc., 1978), lxxxvi. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part1, 165-166. For the letter, see H.I. Bell, Jesus and Christians in Egypt (London: 1924), 53-71. Because of Arian controversy, Athanasius spent seventeen of his forty-five years as bishop in five different exiles.31 This situation happened, probably â€Å"because his Defence against the Arians gave so full an account.†32 Athanasius was likened to â€Å"a modern gangster,† â€Å"an unscrupulous politician,†33 because of â€Å"his oppressive and violent authoritative nature.†34 However he had never been formally charged with heresy,35 and some mentioned that he was the pillar of the church;†36 And the Roman Church hailed him among the four great Fathers of the East.37 III.2. ATHANASIUS THEOLOGY Alexander and his successor Athanasius laid emphasis on Origens insistence on the Sons eternal divinity related to the existence of God as Father rather than creator, which had led to the Nicene doctrine of the identity of substance (ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ±). Athanasius prioritized faith over reason, contrary to Arians rationalistic tendency.38 Athanasius theological approach was centred on Soteriology.39 He was committed to monotheism.40 But Arius account of God was incoherent since on one interpretation it was similar to the radical Judaic monotheism, and the other interpretation of it (one that emphasized â€Å"the Son is god in some secondary sense†) was equivalent to a kind of polytheism ― two gods, namely one God who is ingenerate and 31 Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, . Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/atha nasius (18 March, 2011). See also, Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 20. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 239-273, 422. Cf. David M. Gwynn, The Eusebians: The Polemic of Athanasius of Alexandria and the Construction of the Arian Controversy (Oxford Theological Monographs; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 2. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 6. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part 1, 167. Cf. Adolf Harnack, History of Dogma, (6 vols; trans. Neil Buchanan; New York: Dover Publications,1961, Vol. 4), 62. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma4.ii.ii.i.i.iii.html (25 April 2011). Gregory of Nazianzus, The Orations 21, 26. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. The four great Fathers of the Eastern Church ― John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Athanasius of Alexandria ― were recognized in 1568 by Pope St. Pius V. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. ‘Church Fathers in Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church (6 April 2011). Athanasius, In Illud ‘Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 423. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 425. one who is generated. This resulted in two incongruous accusations against the Arians that they were no better than Jews and that they were identical with pagans. 41 Unlike the Arians, who needed the Son as a lower god to reconcile an incomparable and impassable God with the Scriptural message that God suffered for humankinds salvation, Athanasius dealt with the self-revelation of God who had come into the closest contact with His creation (Jn 14:9).42 Athanasius endeavoured to substantiate â€Å"the very tradition, teaching, and faith of the Catholic Church from the beginning, which the Lord gave, the Apostles preached, and the Fathers kept.† Athanasius maintained, â€Å"I have delivered the tradition, without inventing anything extraneous to it.† The tradition was that the one God is a Triad.43 Trinity At the heart of Athanasiuss theology of Incarnation lay his doctrine of Trinity,44 summed up as follows: There is a Trinity, holy and complete, consistent, eternal and indivisible in nature, not composed of one that creates and one that originated, but all creative, called to be God in Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Father does all things â€Å"through the Word (the Son) in the Holy Spirit†. Their activity is one, and their unity is preserved. The Trinity is Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.67, I.17, 18, III.16. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 426. Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 28-33. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. Brian LePort, An Introduction to the Letters of Serapion on the Holy Spirit by Athanasius of Alexandria, 18. http://westernseminary.academia.edu/BrianLePort/Papers/172851/An_Introduction_to_the_Letters_of_Serapi on_on_the_Holy_Spirit_by_Athanasius_of_Alexandria. (21 April 2011). Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.15; Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 402. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_402.html (20 April 2011). R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425. â€Å"not only in name and form of speech but in truth and actuality.† Thus one God, â€Å"who is overall (Eph. 4:6), and through all and in all.†45 Athanasius constantly defended the ontological unity of the Father and the Son through his Scriptural argument. He proved the divinity of Christ and of Holy Spirit,46 because â€Å"if we participate in Christ, we must then participate in God, if our redemption is to be assured.† 47 Athanasius refuted Arius claims that the Son was a creature and had come into being from ‘non-existence, and that â€Å"there was a time when He was not.† Athanasius argued that there can be only one Son ― the eternal Word and Wisdom of the substance of God the Father, and that the Word is always coexistent with the Father, who is the creator and Lord of all, to whom all things owed their existence.48 Athanasius rejected the Arian position that the very name ‘Son presumes His being generated, and that the Son (th e Word) is a work of the will of God for the creation of the world. Athanasius argued that to be begotten implies to be â€Å"an offspring of the Fathers essence, not of His will,† since â€Å"begetting in God differs from human begetting† because of Gods indivisibility. Because the Son is in the Father and proper to Him, as the radiance in the light and stream from fountain, Athanasius asserted that the Sons eternal relation to the Father is essential Italic words are mine. Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 2, 12, 14, 16, 19-20, 25, 27, 31; III, 15. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24, 25. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66-67. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 427. Athanasius, De incarnation et contra Arianos, 13-19. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 422. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 29. Kurt Aland, A History of Christianity: From the Beginnings to the Threshold of the Reformation (Trans. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980, Vol. 1), 191. Athanasius, Vita antonii, 69. Athanasius, Depositio Arii, 2, 3. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 11. Athanasius, â€Å"On Luke X.22 (Matt. XI.27)† in In Illud ‘Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 4. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, III.4; Cf. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 214. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_214.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 70. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_70.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 89. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_89.html (18 April 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. and not merely moral as Arius viewed.49 Also, Athanasius refuted the Docetic views of the Arians and Apollonarians on the relationship of the historical Christ to the eternal Son. 50 Arius maintained, based on Proverbs 8:22ff, that the Sons mediatory ontological status between God and creation was necessary, because â€Å"the Father was too high and mighty, or too proud to carry out the work of creation himself,† and â€Å"therefore begot the Son† as â€Å"the minister of the intentions of the Father.†51 However, Athanasius argued that the terms applied to the Incarnate and not the pre-existent Christ; Thus, Athanasius implied that the mediating activity of the Son is not in his position within the Godhead, but in his becoming Incarnate. So, Athanasius placed the Son (Logos) on the side of God, opposite Arius placement of the Son on the side of the creatures.52 Athanasius insisted that â€Å"the Son has in common with the Father the fullness of the Fathers Godhead† and â€Å"the Son is entirely God.†53 Against Arius subordination of the Son, Athanasius argued that if the Son says, â€Å"The Father is greater than I,† He means that, â€Å"The Father is the origin, the Son the derivation.†54 â€Å"Eternally begotten, the Son is the Fathers substance, He is consubstantial to the Father, He is ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š.†55 Athanasius also rejected the term ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š as unacceptable. So, Athanasius defended the term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š against the Arians and Semi-Arians.56 Consequently, Athanasius disapproved what the Arians claim ― a ‘proceeding origin for the Father and the Son.57 Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. J ohannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67-68. Athanasius, Epistula ad Epictetum episcopum Corinthi, 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 59. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24-25. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 101. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, II.25; I.16; III.3, 6; II.41; III.3,4. Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318381, 424. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos I.16; III.6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 68. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos III, 3; Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69-70. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 434. Logos and Redemption Athanasius theology of the Logos centred upon the concept of redemption.58 For Athanasius, the redeeming will of God necessitated the incarnation of Christ and his death. If God Himself had not become man, and if Christ were not God, there would not have been redemption for mankind.59 This can only required that Christ was God by nature, not by participation, because the latter could never have formed the likeness of God in anyone. Thus, Athanasius refuted the Arian concept of the Son as god by participation.60 Christology Athanasius theology upheld the real distinction between the divinity and humanity after the Incarnation, yet emphasized the personal unity of Christ. Consequently, whatever the Lord did as God and as human being belongs to the same person.61 Athanasius refuted the Arian charge of creature-worship directed against the Nicene Christology with the argument, that Catholics do not worship the humanity of Christ, but the Lord of creation, the Word Incarnate.62 Holy Spirit By maintaining that the Spirit â€Å"is no creature, but is one with the Son as the Son is one with the Father, [the Spirit] is glorified with the Father and the Son, and confessed as God with the Word,† Athanasius rejected the idea of the Holy Spirit being one of the Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 9, 54. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 70-71. Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 8. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71. Athanasius, De Synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71-72. Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology,72. Athanasius, Epistula ad Adelphium et confessorem, 3. Athanasius, â€Å"Letter LX. ― To Adelphius, Bishop and Confessor: against the Arians† in NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 575. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_575.html (20 April 2011). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, ministering spiritual creatures, and insisted the Godhead of the Holy Spirit according t o the Nicene Creed.63 Athanasius defended the non-scriptural Nicene term ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) and ÃŽ º Ï„Ï‚ ÃŽ ¿ÃÆ'ÃŽ ±Ãâ€š (of the essence). He claimed that these terms were to be found in the Scripture, and they had already been used by the Church Fathers, including Tertullian, Origen, Dionysius of Rome, Dionysius of Alexandria and Theognostus.64 Against the claims of the heretic Arians and Tropicists, Athanasius gave the reasons for adopting the word ÏÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¿Ã ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (consubstantial) for both the Son and the Spirit in relation to the Father, and proved that the Nicaeas Trinitarian formula was in accordance with Scripture.65 Athanasius accused the Arians of teaching that God was not always a Trinity since the Son has not always existed, and also of dividing the Trinity because they attributed different natures to the Father and the Son.66 Arianism attacks the very nature of Christianity because it denotes â€Å"a God who was not a true God at all†, who was â€Å"in no position to communicate salvation† to humans, and therefore â€Å"incapable for redeeming mankind†.67 The Arian doctrine, which formed a canon Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 1, 15-21, 27, 31; III.1. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos II, 25, 26, 73, 74. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67. For a discussion of Athanasiuss use of homoousious of the Spirit, see Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God: the Holy Spirit as the Universal Touch and Goal (Collegeville, Minnesota, USA: Liturgical Press, 2003), 18, 74, 126. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 18. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius: Select Work and Letters, 163. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_163.html (20 April 2011). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 61. Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi (Letter Concerning the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea) was written about 350/351 and addressed by Athanasius to one of his friends, to whom the Arian claim had caused confusion. Whereas and Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum (the four letters concerning the Holy Spirit) was written by Athanasius around 359/360 and addressed to Serapion to refute the heretic tropicists, who opposed the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 57, 61. Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God: the Holy Spirit as the Universal Touch and Goal, 18. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424. Athanasius, De synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 7. of scriptural misinterpretation, was a slander against the Fathers. 68 The worship which the Arians offered to God was a blasphemous idolatry. 69 Athanasius defended the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, successfully explained the nature and generation of the Logos, built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine of the Church, and thus established the theological foundation for centuries to come.70 Athanasius Christological weakness In his Christology, Athanasius did not assign any important role to the human soul of Christ. In fact, When the Arians objected the divinity of Christ by referring to the Scriptural passages which mention the inner suffering, fear and affliction of the Logos, Athanasius never made use the opportunity and never attacked the Arians in this error, because it dealt with the human soul of Christ. 71 Christs death is to Athanasius is a separation of Logos and body.72 Athanasius theology was based on Logos-Sarx theology. In relation to Orationes contra Arianos (III.35-37) its weakness was revealed when Athanasius could not comment to the Arians in: (1) the connecting link between the Logos and his flesh; (2) the existence of a human soul in Christ.73 Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 1. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries, 8. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos I.8, II.43, III.16. Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 13. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy: Ari What are the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity? What are the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity? Thesis: the greatest impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible invasion of escapees, the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population. LINK TO IMPACT ON BIODIVERSITY (EFFECT) AQUACULTURE (CAUSE) Intro Aquaculture can be thought of as a practice that it similar to farming. It involves the cultivation of aquatic dwelling organisms either on land, in a tank system or artificial pond (offshore), or in a naturally occurring waterbody using nets or cages to contain the farmed organisms (Lee and Yoo 2014; Rabasso and Hernandez 2015). Aquaculture as an industry has grown significantly in the past few decades, growing to meet the demanding needs of the human food supply network (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008; Borja et al. 2009; Rabasso and Hernandez 2015), as it is an important natural resource (Ormerod 2003). This increase in captive cultivation has slowed the unsustainable practice of mass catching wild stocks as a supply (Santos et al. 2015; Frazer 2009). Aquaculture exists as one of the fastest growing industries in the world today (Naylor et al. 2001), and this growth is projected to increase ever further (Froehlic et al. 2017). Despite this, many of these cultured organisms can have a nega tive impact on the environment that they inhabit (Fleming et al. 1996; Boyd 2003), in part because of its proximity with the natural environment (Abdou et al. 2017). Aquaculture has the ability to greatly impact biodiversity as well if not carefully managed. These impacts on biodiversity can resonate through multiple trophic levels, and can completely change the natural environment. The greatest impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible invasion of escapees, the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population. Through these modes of disruption, aquaculture has the ability to drastically alter the present biodiversity if not managed appropriately. #1: the possible invasion of escapees The possibility of escaped organisms invading a habitat, and pushing out a native species is quite high when aquaculture is in or near existing waterbodies. A wide variety of organisms are farmed in the world (Naylor et al. 2001). From this, Aquaculture has led to the introduction of many invasive species into the ecosystem, and poor practices may cause invasion occurrences to happen more often (Naylor et al. 2001). The escape of cultured organisms can threaten both the habitats and gene pool of wild populations, causing them, and the surrounding biodiversity to change drastically (Fleming et al. 1996). The organisms that are either intentionally, or unintentionally released are able to reproduce in their new habitat rather successfully (Fleming et al. 1996; Volpe 2000). Many escapes such as salmon, are able to out compete, and out number the wild populations, thus threatening their survival (Fleming et al. 1996). Their invasion may lead to a change in ecosystem dynamics, effectively impacting the natural biodiversity that would otherwise be present. #2: the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication The degradation of the natural environment is just one of the many drawbacks that Aquaculture presents. As a result of the exponential growth of the industry, the sustainability and environmental impact of Aquaculture is often scrutinized (Rabasso and Hernandez 2015) for the elevated levels of greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient pollution, water use, and land use that has followed (Gephart et al. 2016). There are many detrimental practices to Aquaculture such as: water pollution from pond discharge, the excessive use of antibiotics to combat disease, Salinization of land from pond leeching, and the mass consumption of freshwater for farming purposes (Boyd 2003). Many of these practices degrade the environment, and threaten biodiversity in such a way that is irreversible. Aquaculture, and in particular fish farms, are an increasing cause of anthropogenic disturbance [in] benthic communities, (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008). Often when farmed within an natural waterbody, fish cages and nets s ee the release of large quantities of organic waste matter that are spread by water-flow and may lead to biochemical changes, and cause the deoxygenation of the aquatic environment, further impacting benthic communities (Zhang and Kitazawa 2016; Diaz-Almela et al. 2008; OCarroll et al. 2016). In the aquaculture industry, fish farming can promote an increased rate of eutrophication which can severely damage coastal ecosystems (Yu et al. 2016) through the addition of elements such as Nitrogen and Phosphorous (Penczak et al. 1982). The damage caused by eutrophication can lead to a disturbance like effect, which can in turn, cause a significant decrease in the biodiversity of that area (Abdou et al. 2017), further degrading the environment. In an attempt to combat the damage caused when farming within a natural ecosystem, many countries of the European Union (including Canada, the United States, and Australia) are beginning to establish offshore farming with the hope for improved sustainability (Froehlic et al. 2017). Social Learning Theory: Outline and Evaluate Social Learning Theory: Outline and Evaluate Ellie Thomas Criminology Outline what is meant by the term identification in relation to the social learning theory approach. [2 marks] Identification is a psychological process whereby someone identifies with something from another person, typically a model of theirs, and then uses this in order to change their personality. For example, a little boy may identify with his older brother because they are both male, and so when he sees him stealing from a shop, he copies. Explain one limitation of the social learning theory approach. [3 marks] This approach is less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to behave a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our behaviour, and doesnt just stick to one theory as to why we behave the way that we do. Outline and evaluate the social learning theory approach. Refer to the behaviourist approach as part of your evaluation. Even though the social learning theory (SLT) does agree with the behaviourist theory that most of our behaviour is learned through experience Bandura also propose the idea that people can learn through different way, e.g. observation and imitation. Learning does occur through classical and operant conditioning; however, we can also learn indirectly through watching others and learning from mistakes. Another word for this is vicarious reinforcement; learning through observing and imitating; indirectly. An individual observes the behaviour of someone and if the behaviour is received positively, they would learn that they can do that, and if it is received negatively, they will know to never do it. So, if someone is punished we learn not to copy the behaviour, and if someone is rewarded we know that we should or could repeat that behaviour! A huge idea throughout the SLT approach is the role of mediational processes. This is the concept that mental processes effect our behaviour. These mental factors, or mediational processes, created by Bandura, are: attention the extent to which we notice certain behaviours; retention how well the behaviour is remembered; motor reproduction the ability to perform the behaviour; and motivation the will to perform the behaviour. Identification is also a key concept in SLT. This is when people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people we identify with. These are known as models. We can find models in people we find attractive, family, friends, and peers, and people of high status. If we see our model behaving in a certain way, we are more lily to copy it (imitate it). One strength of the social learning theory is that it is less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to behave a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our behaviour, and doesnt just stick to one theory as to why we behave the way that we do. Another strength of this approach is that it explains cultural differences in behaviour. This theory can explain how people living in Nigeria behave differently to people living in England, for example, because it says our behaviour is through learning from those around us and the societies in which we live. This has been a useful concept in understanding why children from different countries act differently, for example how they come to understand their gender role. A final strength of the social learning theory approach is that it shows the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Conditioning alone, whether it operant, classical, or both, cannot provide a good enough explanation for behaviour. Humans and animals alike learn and remember behaviours which they should do. For example, from a young child children learn from their older siblings mistakes and therefore avoid doing that punished behaviour. Bandura observed a similar thing with his bobo doll, as when children were shown an adult hitting a bobo doll and getting away with it, they repeated the behaviour, however when they saw an adult getting in trouble for it, they didnt. Therefore, this is a strength because it provides a more comprehensive and detailed explanation of behaviour. However, a weakness of the SLT approach is that it over-relies on evidence from lab studies. Many of the ideas that Bandura developed were all tested through lab studies, and not real life situations. Studies done in labs can often not be a true reflection of what the researcher is investigating because of this. For example, the children in Banduras bobo doll experiment may have understood that as they were not in a real-life situation being shown a video of an aggressive adult, for example they were supposed to copy the behaviours of the adult or they may have acted the way they thought they were supposed to. Therefore, the research may tell us little about how the children truly would have behaved. A final evaluation point of this approach is the weakness that the SLT underestimates the influence of biological factors. Little reference to biological factors are mentioned by Bandura in this approach. However, we can see from his studies that biology does take a toll. For example, boys were found to be more aggressive towards the bobo doll, however we know that testosterone is a hormone found naturally in males, that makes them more aggressive by nature. Therefore, we cannot put down their behaviour entirely to learning, as biology must play a role in it.